GENDER AND FAMILY TYPES AS FACTORS INFLUENCING THE ASSERTIVE BEHAVIOR OF WORKERS

GENDER AND FAMILY TYPES AS FACTORS INFLUENCING THE ASSERTIVE BEHAVIOR OF WORKERS

ABSTRACT

This study examined gender and family types as factors influencing assertive behavior of workers. Specifically, the study examined the relationship between worker’s family type (monogamy and polygamy) and their behavior, determine the gender difference in the pattern of behavior of both family types and determine gender and family types as factors influencing assertive behavior among workers. The study adopted survey design and a representative sample of hundred thirty respondents were chosen and questionnaire were administered to respondents to fill and return. A random sampling approach was also employed in selecting with the specified units with the view of getting representative results. The data collection in this research was grouped in a frequency table. The percentage of each category of respondents was statistically worked out to prove a point. A total of one hundred and thirty (130) were administered and a total of one hundred and twenty five (125) which represent 95.15% were duely completed and returned by the respondents. The study revealed that gender and family types influence the assertive behavior of workers in an organization, this was supported by 37 representing 29.6 percent disagreeing that gender and family types influence the assertive behavior of workers while 88 presenting 70.4% agree. From the findings of this study and the long held notion that early experience in people’s life affects their behavior. Therefore respective family experiences presented to the respective individual shape their interpersonal behavior styles. Family interpersonal behavior style is very important in the upbringing of a properly adjusted individual because individual tend to model their parents, significant others and other siblings interpersonal behavior styles which at the long run affects their assertive behavior at work.

GRAM NEGATIVE BACTERIA (GNB) ISOLATED FROM USED HOME-MADE AND SURGICAL NOSE/FACE MASK

GRAM NEGATIVE BACTERIA (GNB) ISOLATED FROM USED HOME-MADE AND SURGICAL NOSE/FACE MASK

CHAPTER ONE

1. Introduction

Micro-organisms can spread easily, and the air itself (Shivakumar et al., 2017). Bioaerosols formed from specific equipment usages, these are invisible to the naked eye and can remain in the environment as aerosols for long periods of time. These aerosols may be inhaled into the lungs to migrate to the alveoli or may come in contact with the skin or mucous membranes (Shivakumar et al., 2017). Aerosol that are 100 micrometer or more in diameter are thought to be too large to be inhaled; however, they may still come into contact with the skin, eyes, and mucous membranes or may settle down on the exposed hair and clothing. Thus, diseases like pneumonia, influenza, hepatitis, may be transmitted with skin and eye (Shivakumar et al., 2017). Since masks protect the mucous membranes of the nose and mouth, they must be worn wherever there is a potential for splashing, saliva or body fluids, or where there is a probability of the inhalation of aerosols with a potential for transmission of airborne pathogens.

Nose mask is an essential infection control barrier, a very important subject in the prevention of infectious diseases. Surgical masks are fluid- repellent paper filter masks and are suitable for both surgical and non-surgical individuals procedures that generate aerosols.. This three-ply material is made up from a melt blown material placed between non-woven fabrics. The melt-blown material acts as the filter that stops microbes from entering or exiting the mask. Most surgical and home made masks feature pleats/folds commonly three pleated are used allowing the user to expand the mask so it covers from the nose and under the chin (Baratam, 2014). According to the CDC guidelines, surgical nose and home made mask is a personal protective barrier (CDC, 2013). The use of surgical nose masks is synonymous with the use by the public and is so deeply ingrained that to question it would have been unheard of until recently (Lipp, 2013). Unlike the white coats, the filtration abilities of a mask begins to decline after approximately 20 minutes with exposure to moisture and the external surface of a mask gets contaminated by the aerosols present in the environment and becomes a source of cross contamination and thus requires proper disposal, but unfortunately,local resident of AkungbaAkoko, Ondo state Nigeria dispose the used nose/ face mask indiscriminately and reused the nose mask, this create a false sense of protection against various diseases causative agent. This research work is an eye opener to the inherent danger of reused nose/face mask.

A surgical nose mask is a single-use device designed to retain infective agents present in the exhaled breath. Surgical masks are often referred to as face masks, but not all commercially available face masks are regulated as surgical masks a very good example is the home made nose mask. Surgical masks are made to act as barrier to droplets or aerosols while surgical respirators are made to filter out airborne particles including viruses and bacteria. Surgical masks and surgical respirators are marked as medical devices. For example, N95 means that the mask provides the intended effectiveness of filtering 95% of particles with a mass median diameter of 0.3 micrometers(Lipp, 2013).

Non-woven fabric i.eHome made mask, has better bacteria filtration efficiency and air permeability, while remaining less slippery than the woven cloth (Henneberry, 2020). It is most commonly made of polypropylene, or, in combination with polyethylene of PET polyester. The filtration level of a mask will therefore depend on the types of the non-woven fabrics used for its manufacture and these will vary according to the application. According to the standards surgical masks are made to be effective at filtering out particles such as bacteria above 1 micron.

The home made nose mask are nose mask that is hand weaving or swing machine made nose mask, made from different fabric of layered cloth, a, mechanical barrier for inhalation of Bioaerosols. Both Home-made Nose mask (HNM) and Surgical Nose mask (SNM) are effective in preventing the transmission of infectious diseases like influenza virus and Corona virus (Cowling et al., 2019). The level of protection of masks against infectious diseases depends on multiple factors such as the appropriate usage and fit of the mask, level of exposure, compliance, complementary interventions (such as hands washing), early use , as well as the type of mask (Maclintyre, 2014). A recent study indicated that surgical face masks could, in a real-life situation, prevent the transmission of common cold and corona viruses from symptomatic individuals (Greenhalgh, 2020).

A recent study indicated that surgical face masks could in a real-life situation, prevent the transmission of common cold and corona viruses from symptomatic individuals (Greenhalgh, 2020). The WHO recommends that PPE masks should be used based on the risk of exposure (e.g., type of activity) and the transmission dynamics of the pathogen (e.g., contact, droplet, or aerosol). The use of masks may give users a false sense of protection, thus encouraging risk-taking. Although the effectiveness of reusable face masks is unclear, this is one of the reason that necessitate this research work, a response from on the short age of single-use masks states that reusable masks do offer some form of protection .

However, protocols on how to use reusable masks alongside complementary interventions should be developed to increase their affectivity in protecting against infection studied the effectiveness of homemade mask in blocking transmission of the microorganisms in healthy volunteers. Generally, the effectiveness of a cloth (Home-made) masks would depend on the fit, fineness of the cloth and the number of layers indicating that there is potential to design more effective fabrics (Home-made)masks. Most single-use face masks have an inbuilt filter,allowing for the insertion of a filter in a fabrics (Home-made), may increase their filtration capacities. There are concerns that use of masks may give general public a false sense of protection, thus encouraging risk-taking. Protocols should be developed on how to use and clean reusable masks alongside complementary interventions frequent to increase their affectivity in protecting against infection.

1.2       Statement of Problem

During the current coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic, caused by the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), the use of home-made and surgical nose/face masks has become increasingly recommended or even mandatory in community settings outside hospitals and care facilities (. Nose/Face masks are most often used to prevent respiratory droplet transmission and reduce transmission from people infected with respiratory viruses to non-infected people (Shivakumar et al., 2017).The efficacy of face masks against different airborne transmissions is now questionable as there is a general assumption that both home-made and surgical nose/face mask may be subject to bacteria infection and unsafe to use due to over-use or improper usage of the mask. In fact, the human saliva contains 100 million bacterial cells per milliliter and harbors a range of pathobionts, including Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Candida albicans, Klebsiellapneumoniae, Neisseria, Prevotella, and Veillonella spp. (Gender et al., 2013). This has become a thing of concern thus, this study becomes necessary to examine the Gram Negative Bacteria (GNB) isolated from used home-made and surgical nose / face mask.

1.3       Objective of the Study

The objective of this study is investigate gram negative bacteria isolated from used home-made and surgical nose/face mask.

Specifically the study will

1. Isolate and identify and determine the characteristics of the isolated bacteria
2. Determine the biochemical characteristics of the isolated bacteria
3. Identify the gram negative bacteria isolated from the used home-made / surgical nose / face mask.

ASSESSMENT OF THE CHALLENGES OF LOCAL GOVERNMENT ADMINISTRATION IN NIGERIA

ASSESSMENT OF THE CHALLENGES OF LOCAL GOVERNMENT ADMINISTRATION IN NIGERIA

 (A CASE STUDY OF KARU LOCAL GOVERNMENT, NASARAWA STATE)

Abstract

This study is an assessment of the challenges of local government administration in Nigeria, with focus on Karu local government area of Nasarawa State, the specific objectives are to identify the problems militating against the effective administration, ascertain if lack of revenue affects the effective and efficient administration, determine the effects of local government autonomy the administration and the effect of bad governance leadership on the administration of Karu Local government area of Nasarawa. The research design for this study was survey method. This design was adopted because human beings are involved and are prone to give answers that varies and agreements that will be used as the study’s population. The findings of the study shows that the problems or challenges militating against the effective administration of local government in Nigeria, lack fund, autonomy and corruption. Finally the study recommend that local governments in Nigeria should be made to be more financially stable and independent. If the federation as they are agitating are given right of resources or control in their areas, the local government should equally be considered. To ensure that there is a fair relation between the functions being performed by the third tier of government and their share of available resources in the country.

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1       Background of the Study

Local government administrations (LG) globally vary in size and structure and operate under different arrangements based on the system of government in different nations. However as observed by Mello, (2012) local governments globally strive to meet peoples’ demands for goods and services in a cost effective manner particularly at the lowest level of government or government at the grass root. Among the characteristics generally manifested by local government is that it is a subordinate system of government or sub unit of a federal/central or state government and charged with powers to perform legislative, administrative and quasi judicial functions as the case may be. It also has the power to formulate policies, prepare budgets and a measure of control over its own staff, with a view that it is rightly position to ensure unhindered and efficient service delivery (Chukwuemeka et al, 2014, Otinche, 2014, Ezeani, 2012 and Tumini 2011).

Local governments operate at the grassroots and are expected to provide services to their stakeholders. In a federal system like Nigeria, local governments are close to the people and hence could effectively alter socioeconomic and political conditions within their jurisdictions. Apart from providing and maintaining basic infrastructures, local governments can complement the economic activities of other levels of government.

This of course depends on the efficient and effective provision of basic amenities and social infrastructures for the people at the grass root. The local government councils are required to serve the public interest in areas of constructing roads,public markets, healthcare centres, drainage, transportation,motor parks, building primary schools, among others. This is because, local administration is the concern of the grass root people in the provision of social and economic amenities to the rural area where they come from, making it government at the door step of rural inhabitants.

These functions of local government are well known and popularized by the constitution of the country. What seems to matter most to the people of the grassroots is to see tangible results of their taxes, contributions, labor expended and the judicious use of monthly allocation from the federation account to their local governments.These local government councils are however faced with series of problems and difficulties, which in the long run constitutes their challenges. Identification of challenges which attend these processes will lead us to proffering or suggesting how they can be properly managed in the benefit of the people in particular and society in general. So therefore, this study focuses on the Assessment of the  challenges of local administration in Nigeria: A case study of Karu Local Government of Nasarawa State.

1.2       Statement of the Problem

The essence of reforming local government system in Nigeria is to bring about stable increases in income, productivity, diversification of its economy and general quality of lives in the rural areas. But the ability of the local governments in Nigeria to accomplish these tasks depends on their financial endowments.It is generally agreed that functionality of local government, the level at which services are rendered, and the quality of services are strongly tied to the financial resources available to it and good governance

Local governments in Nigeria are faced with many difficulties such as bad leadership, lack of adequate revenue, lack of autonomy from the state and federal government etc; this problems among others are cogwheel to the smooth running of the local government system. With the local government reform of 1976, local governments in Nigeria became recognized as the third tier of government, vested with the statutory powers to discharge the duties and responsibilities of government. However, there have been a tendency, conscious or unconsciously, to overgeneralize the problems of local governments administration in Nigeria. Though the empirical fact from extant literature revealed the problems of some local governments in the country, the experience of Karu local government seems to have been ignored in that respect.This, therefore, necessitates a study of this nature to investigate if Karu local government is faced with challenges in the administration of local governance. It is against this backdrop that this study seeks to assess the challenges of local government administration in Nigeria with particular references to Karu Local Government Area of Nasarawa State.

1.3       Objectives of the Study

The broad objective of the study is to assess the challenges of local government administration in Nigeria, with focus on Karu local government area of Nasarawa State. However, the specific objectives are:

1. To identify the problems militating against the effective administration of Karu Local government.
2. To ascertain if lack of revenue affects the effective and efficient administration of Karu Local Government Area
3. To determine the effects of local government autonomy the administration of Karu local government area.
4. To evaluate the effect of bad governance leadership on the administration of Karu Local government area of Nasarawa.

1.4       Research Questions

1. What are the problems militating against the effective administration of Karu Local government?
2. Does lack of revenue affects the effective and efficient administration in Karu Local Government Area?
3. What are the effects of local government autonomy the administration of Karu local government area?
4. What are the effect of bad governance leadership on the administration of Karu Local government area of Nasarawa? 

1.5       Significance of the Study

The study has theoretical and practical significance. Theoretically, it will assess the challenges of local government administration in Nigeria, particularly in Karu local government area of Nasarawa State. This is more so considering the debate on the problems of local government administration since the return of democracy to Nigeria in 1999. It will also contribute to the noble goal of making local governments in Nigeria more effective.

More so, this study is expected to add to the body of literature on local government administration and stimulate further research in this direction.

The constant need to improve governance in Nigeria, particularly the local governments, makes the contributions of this work invaluable as reference for further research in local governments administration in Nigeria.

Practically, the findings of this research will assist policy makers and local government administrators in making local governments in Nigeria more financially viable and efficient in service delivery. It will also go a long way in making local governments in the country more viable, efficient, effective and self-reliant as the finding will bring to the fore issues that have undermined the administration of the local government system. It will therefore serve as a guide to local government administrators.

1.6       Scope of Study

The study assessed the challenges of local government administration in Nigeria. The scope of the study will be limited to Karu Local Government Area of Nasarawa state. This is to enable the researcher to carry out in-depth study and a clear understanding of the subject matter while the findings of the study can be generalized.  

1.7       Definition of Key Terms

Some of the basic concepts used in the course of this work, which we believe needed operational definition to enable the understanding and assimilation of this work are concisely defined below;

1. Local government: Local government is the tier of government closest to the people which is vested with certain powers to exercise control over the affairs of the people in its domain.
2. Autonomy: The concept of autonomy within the context of local government administration is the elbow room and freedom of the local government to make decisions within the powers and functions to it by law within its sphere of influence. This simply implies the enjoyment of self-governing status. In other words, it refers to the right or freedom of a body to set the parameters of its operations.
3. Democracy: The word “democracy” when literally translated means people’s power or giving to the people. Consequently, when one talks of democracy in government, he refers to a system which gives the power of governing to the people concerned. By extension therefore, a democratic local government system is that which transfers the powers of governing the local people from any higher tier of external government to the local people themselves through their representative in the local councils.
4. Tier: This is one of the several levels in an organization or system of government. In this context, it refers to the third tier of government (local government).
5. Constitution: the system of laws and basic principles that a state a country or an organization is governed by.

THE POLICE AND CRIME CONTROL IN ABUJA METROPOLIS

THE POLICE AND CRIME CONTROL IN ABUJA METROPOLIS

ABSTRACT

This research work examines the Nigeria Police force and crime control in Abuja metropolis with the specific objectives to examine the role of the Nigeria Police in combating crime in the society, identify the inadequacies of the police in the discharge of their functions and to proffer practical solutions for combating crimes in Nigeria. The methods of data collection were primary and secondary data method. The data collected were analyzed by use of simple percentages and descriptive statistics. Findings of the study show that the Nigeria police force performed several roles such as crime detection, prevention, control and prosecution of criminals in their attempt to maintain law and orderliness in the community but without challenges, such challenges as identified by the include but limited to corruption, poor welfare, poor funding, inadequate arms and ammunition and lack of public support. Finally the study recommend that the Nigerian police force should put more effort in improving  their relationship with the members of the public in other to gain the confidence of the people for easy flow of information which is the pillar of crime control and prevention and the government at all level should help in the provision of sophisticated arms, patrol vans/ power bikes, rain coat, and all other crime fighting arms to both the Police to help them contribute effectively for a better crime free society especially Abuja metropolis.

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1. Background of the study

Crime is one of the most obvious events which confront people in this modern age (Giddens, 2004). According to Ugwuoke (2010), crime and criminality are as old as mankind. Crime to Marshall (2008) is a universal feature of all human societies. The reason for this according to Marshall is because there is no human society where norms and values are not violated, from the simplest hunting and gathering societies to the most complex civilized societies. It is because of this universal character of crime that every society is expected to have ‘specific mechanisms for the overall interest and wellbeing of the generality of the populace’ (Igbo, 2007:14)

The phenomenon, “crime” has been a major subject of private and public concern throughout human history. No society is free of crime. However, the question often asked is that even if crime is part of inevitable human behaviour, how much of it can a society tolerate? This question is linked to man’s natural instinct for survival, the ability to respond to any threat to his life and property. Crime poses such a threat, particularly in its violent form. The recent upsurge in violent crimes in Nigeria has created enormous uncertainty in the security of lives and property of individuals and of social stability in general. The incidents of traditional crimes such as armed robbery, arson, drug trafficking and abuse, murder, kidnapping, rape, hired assassinations and ritual killings are examples of the most serious and violent crimes which have been on the increase in the recent past. Correspondingly, White Collar Crimes in the form of Advance Fee Fraud (popularly, known as 419), contract deals, embezzlement and mismanagement in both the public and private sectors are also on the increase. The aggregate of the traditional crimes mostly committed by the less privileged and white collar crimes mostly committed by the highly placed call for a change in the strategies for the prevention and control of crime in Nigeria and Abuja in particular.

The existing patterns in criminal activities show that criminals are getting more organized, sophisticated and brutal in the manner they carry out their dastardly acts, either in the way they physically attack individuals with dangerous weapons or the method they use in taking advantage of their official positions to steal and stash away millions of public funds in foreign and domestic accounts. Equally worrisome is the new dimension in organized criminal behaviour in Nigeria involving acts of terrorism and sabotage against individuals and public places. Recent incidents, in which some individual were stalked and eventually trapped in the volley of bullets from assault weapons, depict the viciousness of violent criminals. These acts are usually well-planned, orchestrated, syndicated and organized in the mafia-type fashion. In addition to these new patterns of violent crimes against persons, there is also the equally disturbing criminal behaviour against the Nigerian economy leading to the collapse of financial institutions and government parastatals. In short, we are witnessing the emergences of dangerous trends in the nation’s social and economic well-being which needs to be addressed by the appropriate authorities saddled with the responsibilities of maintaining peace and orderly in the society among which is the Nigeria Police Force.

The law has clothed the Nigeria Police with enviable powers in the sphere of administration of justice, preservation of law, order and maintenance of national tranquility. The section from the 1999 Constitution provides that the Police shall be organized and administered in accordance with such provisions as may be prescribed by the Act of the National Assembly. In exercise of the constitutional powers conferred on the National Assembly to enact the Police Act.

In the exercise of its primary powers, the Police also act in other spheres which are necessarily incidental to the exercise of the actual powers of the police. For instance, in the exercise of the primary duty of the police under section 4 of the Police Act, the Act gives the Police the power of public prosecution. By these powers, the police can charge and prosecute any person suspected to have committed a crime before any court of law in Nigeria.

In the bid to create a favourable condition for the discharge of the duty of the police; the Police Act has also given the police the power to arrest any person suspected to have committed a crime with or without warrants. The Police by the provision of the Act is also empowered to detain any person reasonably suspected to be in possession or carrying stolen property, or property that is reasonably believed to be unlawfully obtained. For the purpose of forensic investigation, the law empowers the police to take finger prints. It should, however, be noted that the exercise of these numerous powers conferred on the police has to be discharged with due regards to reasonability and decorum. Any exercise of such powers in contravention of procedures accepted practice and the rights of individuals would be rendered ultra-vires null and void. This is importantly so as individual rights are also fundamentally guaranteed by the same Constitution that confers powers on the police.

The vital and indispensable roles peace and security play in all facets of human development and existence, especially in our society incontrovertibly cannot either be swept under the carpet or dismissed with mere wave of hands. This is true because in any society, be it simple or complex, developed or developing and rural or urban, man in his state of nature is a wanting animal, and insatiable, who is always confronted with the problems of diverse interest and goals, at times insolvable, unless infringement upon other people’s right is employed, it is against this background that this study seek to examine the police and crime control in Abuja metropolis.

1.2     Statement of the Problem

Crime and the cases of crime is fast becoming a serious problem in contemporary world. The high rate of crime in Abuja the Federal Capital Territory has raised a general feeling of insecurity of lives and property, and have made residents of the city to cry out for urgent assistance to curb the ugly situation in order to safeguard the lives and property of community members. In an anxious bid to tackle this rising wave of crime, the governments have increased support to Nigeria police service in areas of personnel, logistics and firearms. However it seems that the more weapons and police personnel deployed to fight crime, the more criminal activities are committed. Chukwuma (2002) noted that the much that has been achieved seems to be crime spreading from one area to another. The argument therefore is that to deal with the growing sophisticated armed robbery operations, superior weapons, more personnel and new methods or strategy like police/public partnership (community policing) should be introduced.

1.3     Objectives of the Study

The general objective of this study is to appraise the performance of the police in their role of crime control in Abuja metropolis. The specific objectives of this research work are:

1. To examine the role of the Nigeria Police in combating crime in the society.
2. To identify the inadequacies of the police in the discharge of their functions.
3. To proffer practical solutions for combating crimes in Nigeria.

1.4     Research Questions

1. What are the roles of the Nigeria Police in combating crime in the society?
2. What are the inadequacies of the police in the discharge of their functions?
3. What are the practical solutions for combating crimes in Nigeria?

1.5     Significance of the Study

The importance of this research work cannot be over emphasized. It analyses the role of Police in crime control in the Nigeria society in order to give the public clearer views on police administration.

Also, the research is necessitated to show case the indiscriminate violations of human rights by the police and the gross increase of crime rate in the country which often leaves much to be desired.

With the above issues, this research will serve as a viable source of information to all and sundry. First, it will benefit the police, those engaged in crime control and administration of justice, law enforcement agencies and the court. It will also provide relevant suggestions on how best to curb the increase of crimes; it is also of immense benefit to policy makers, government officials, academicians, students and anyone interested in the peaceful co-existence of the Nigerian populace.

1.6     Scope of the Research

This research is limited to the role of Nigeria Police in crime control in Abuja. It will also look into the issues of crimes prevention and mechanisms for control crimes in Nigeria. But, reference shall be made to Abuja metropolis. Analysis was also made to other police organization to enhance more knowledge on this area.

1.7     Operational Definition of Terms

The following basic concepts are operationalized for easy comprehension of the study:

Community Policing: It is a collaborative effort between the police and the members of the public to identify the problems of crime and disorder and to develop solutions from within the community in crime reduction.

Crime: Crime in this study means any action which contravenes the laws established by political authority.

Crime Control: In this study, crime control is the means of solving crime problems, arresting suspects, processing and incapacitating offenders by the members of society, agents and the criminal justice system.

Crime Fighting Policing: This is the kind of policing that do not need the collaboration of the member of the society in crime control/fight but solely depend on themselves to dictate and control crime example is the police we have during military era.

Crime Prevention: In this study, it is the present interventions in stopping future crime.

Crime Reduction: It is all the effort from the people and the government to reduce the rate of crime in a given society.

Law Enforcement Agencies: They are those that are responsible for detecting, fighting and controlling crime in any society.

Perception: It is the way a set of people see or understand a given circumstances, or the awareness created by some people about something or issues.

Strategy: In this study, strategy is the way or means of doing the same thing in a different way for more positive result.

Traditional Policing: Principally, they are government agency responsible for law enforcement and also to detect and arrest criminals, (Swanson, Territo and Taylor 1998). It is also to mean in this research work the kind of police system used before the advent of the colonial masters, whereby the emirs at the north uses palace guards, the oba at the west make use of palace guards and council of elders of the east uses age-grade to ensure order.

AN ASSESSMENT OF ROAD TRANSPORT INFRASTRUCTURE DEVELOPMENT IN KADUNA STATE, NIGERIA

AN ASSESSMENT OF ROAD TRANSPORT INFRASTRUCTURE DEVELOPMENT IN KADUNA STATE, NIGERIA

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1      Background to the Study

The spatial differences of phenomena on the earth‘s surface indicate that the different part of the earth provides various products that the people needs. Goods and services can only be obtain by moving to the point of demand and supply and this can only be possible through  transport  (Ogbuozobe,  1997).  Transportation  is  the  movement  of  goods  and services from a point of origin to a desired destination. Transport industries exist to provide for the movement of people and goods and for the provision and distribution of services; and transport thereby fulfils one of the most important functions and is one of the most pervasive activities in any society or economy. (Brain and Richard. 2000). In support of this, Taube (2013), insist that ―It is hardly any human society or human settlement that can efficiently and effectively function without adequate, reliable and affordable transport system‖. However, the efficiency and effectiveness of any transport system depend on its infrastructure and services (Ocholi, 2013).

Infrastructure can be described as a fundamental basis or requirement of all activities of an organized society in both social and economic dimension. It is the basic physical and organizational structure needed for the operation of a society and the economy. Infrastructure can be classify into social and economic types (World Investment Research,

2008). Infrastructure is an umbrella term for many activities usually referred to as ―social overhead capital‖ by development economist. Precisely, infrastructure refers to a network of transport, communication and public (social) services-all functioning as a system or as a

set of interrelated and mutually beneficial services provided for the improvement of general well-being of the population (Ogbuozobe 1997).

Transport infrastructures are critical substructure whose development has direct bearing on the overall growth on the nation. Infrastructures are the major tools of economic and strategic development. Oni and Okanlawon (2008) denotes transport infrastructure as the major structure of component part of the transport system offering the provision of transport service and operation.

Road transport system is a very important sub sector of transportation in Nigeria. It is the most prevalent mode of transportation for people, goods, and services from the point of origin to the desired destination with the sole benefit of time and value chain addition. The road transportation system in Nigeria is as old as creation. During the 1900s under the British colonial rule, the road designed was to aid the transportation of goods from village to hinterlands to the coastal region for exportation of raw materials for their industries in U.K (Sheriff, 2009). However, during evolving economic development after independence in 1960 saw the need for road system expansion with the main purpose of facilitating access to the cities and large towns (Encyclopedia of nation, 2008). Nigeria has the largest road network in West Africa and the second largest south of the Sahara with approximately

200,000km of surfaced roads as estimated (Filani, 1999). Currently road system is about

208,200km with 28,980 km paved and 179,220km unpaved (Federal Ministry of Works

Bulletin, 2012).

The major road transport infrastructure in Nigeria consist of 32,000km of Federal highways including seven major bridges across the Niger and Benue rivers, the Lagos ring

road, the third mainland axial bridge, 30,500km of state roads; and 130,000km of local roads (Buhari, 2000). The author detailed further that as at June 1996 only 50% of the federal roads and 20% of the state roads were in good condition. While, an estimate 5% of the local rural roads were freely motorable. The rehabilitation program carried out by the Petroleum Trust Fund (PTF) in year 1996 to 1999 covered selected portions of the federal highway totaling about 12,000km along with township roads in about 18 selected cities. Meanwhile over-use and lack of maintenance are further eroding the quality of the rest of the federal highway network. A nationwide road survey conducted by the Central Bank of Nigeria (CBN) on the state of highways in the country in December 2002 reveals that the road network as of December 2002, was estimated at 194,000km. It shown that most of the roads were in a bad condition, especially those in the southeastern and northwestern part of the country. The pattern is generally the same for the roads in other part of the country. Some of the roads, constructed over 30 years ago, had not been rehabilitated even once, resulting in major cracks (longitudinal and transverse), depression, broken down bridges and numerous potholes that makes roads transport slow and unsafe (CBN, 2002).

The survey also shows that the state of Nigeria roads has remained poor for a number of reasons. Such reasons include faulty designs, lack of drainage and very thin coatings, which was easily washed away, excessive use of the road network, given the underdeveloped nature of waterways and railways, which could serve as alternative means of transport,  absence  of  an  articulated  road  program  and  inadequate  funding  for  road maintenance (Odugbemi, 2010). The importance attached to the road sector reflects in government resources allocation to it in the last decades. The road sub sector which accounted for 54% of the federal government total public sector planned capital investment

in transport in the 1962-1968 first national development plan, received more than 70% of the  allocation  during  the  third  (1975-1988)  and  fourth  (1981-1985)  development  plan period. Similarly, from 1986-till date, different development plan period has witness annual incremental allocation of resources. The question is then how has these translated into good road network in Nigeria judging from the observable and eye-catching evidence and facts (Adeyemo, 1989).

The presence of an adequate, reliable and efficient transport system is a critical factor in local economic development. A well-developed transportation infrastructure provide adequate access to local communities, which in turn is a necessary condition for the efficient  operation  of  manufacturing,  retail,  labour  and  housing  market  (Olubemehin,

2012). This can only be made if the Road Infrastructure is in good standing to support movement  of  people,  goods  and  services.  Therefore  this  study intends  to  assess  road transport infrastructure development in Kaduna state with specific interest in the state, types, functionality and distribution of such road transport infrastructure vis – a– vis the Kerbs, Culverts, Camber (cross slope), Traffic Lights, Road Signs, Road Marking, Media, Shoulder, Zebra, Round about (intersections), Bridges, Overhead Bridge and Pedestrian Bridges.

1.2       Statement of the Research Problem

The studies on infrastructure, particularly, the move to measure quantitative relationship between growth in transport infrastructure and total economic growth using micro economic model  started with Antle (1983) when he estimated  a Cobb Douglas production function for 47 developing countries and nineteen (19) developed countries. In

support of this findings, Mera (1973); Retner (1983); Biehi (1986); Aschuer (1989); H.S Binswanger, S Khandker and M. Rosenzweig (1989); Easterly and Rebelo (1993); and Buffes and Shah (1993) found transport infrastructure as an effective factor of production. Also, Aschuer (1989) investigated the role of infrastructure in development process based on the United States; he argued that nonmilitary public investment is far more important in increasing aggregate productivity than military spending.    He conclude that core infrastructure such as street light, highways, Airport among others. contribute more to productivity than other  form of infrastructure,  and that  the  slowdown of United State productivity was related to decrease in public infrastructure investment.

Caldron (2009) provided a comprehensive assessment of impact of infrastructural development on growth in African countries based on econometrics estimates for a sample of 136 countries from 1960 to 2005. He studied the impact on per capita growth of faster accumulation in infrastructure stock and enhancement in the quality of infrastructure services for 39 African countries in 3 key infrastructure sectors; telecommunication, electricity, and transportation (i.e. road). Using an econometrics technique suitable for dynamic panel model and likely endogenous regressors, the author found that infrastructure stock and services quality boost economic growth. The findings shows that growth is positively affected by the volume of infrastructure.

Boopen  (2006) analyzed  the contribution  of transport  capital  and  growth  for a sample of a sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) and a sample of small island developing states (SIDS). Using both cross sectional and panel data analysis. In both cases, the analysis concluded that transport capital has been a contributor to the economic progress of these countries. Analysis further revealed that in the SSA case, the productivity of transport

capital stock is superior as compared to the overall capital while it is not the case for the SIDS, where transport capital is seen to have the average productivity level of overall capital stock. Pravakar, et al., (2010) investigated the role of infrastructure in promoting economic growth in China for the period of 1975-2007 using GMM (Generalized method of moment) and ARDL (Autho regressive distributed leg model) technique , the result reveals that road infrastructure investment have played an important role in economic growth of China.

Loto (2006) also found that infrastructure when measured in physical sense, impact positively on economic growth. In addition, (Nwakaze and Mulikat, 2010) estimated the contribution of transportation investments, congestion and traffic related accidents to economic  growth  in  Nigeria  from  1975-2006.  They used  the  extended  Cobb  Douglas production function model, they found that transport investment positively contribute to economic growth while traffic contribute negatively. The estimated model used was the error correction mechanism with the real gross domestic product as dependent variable, the explanatory variables include physical capital, labour force, total road network, automobile density, and traffic related accidents.

Ogun  (2010) investigated  the impact  of infrastructural  development  on  poverty reduction in Nigeria. Specifically, the relative effect of physical and social infrastructure on living standard or poverty indicators were examine, with a view to providing empirical evidence on the implication of increase urban poor. The paper employed secondary data for the period  of 1970-2005.  The Structure vector  autoregressive  (SVAR)  techniques  was adopted   in   the   analysis.   The   study   unequivocally   discovered   that   infrastructural development led to poverty reduction, which leads to economic growth. Result also shows

that though infrastructure in general reduces poverty and increase economic growth, social infrastructure  explains  a  higher  proportion  of  the  forecast  error  in  poverty  indicators relative to physical infrastructure. This suggest that massive investment in Transport Infrastructure in cities would drastically reduce poverty and increase growth in the urban areas. Indeed, socio-economic development can be facilitated and accelerated by the presence of Transport infrastructure. If these facilities and services are not in place, development will be very difficult and in fact, can be compared to a very scarce commodity that can only be secured at a very high price and cost (Adeyemo, 1989).

The importance of road transport infrastructure have long been recognize as crucial to promoting growth and development. This is obvious considering its wide range of influence and increase productivity, generation of income and improved quality of life. However, this role depends largely on the extent to which road infrastructure are adequately provided, distributed over space and maintained (Adefila and Bulus, 2014).

To the best knowledge of the researcher, only few studies attempted an assessment of few Road Transport infrastructure in Kaduna state, and almost all, used secondary source of data all through. This research, in contrast, assessed the state, types, functionality as well as distribution by zones of thirteen (13) Road Transport Infrastructure in Kaduna state and used both primary and secondary source of data.

Federal highways in Kaduna state have been plagued by a number of Road Infrastructure problems with major ones beings faulty designs, inadequate drainage system, uneven  distribution  by  zones  and  poor  maintenance  culture,  which  have  significantly reduce the ability of the roads to perform its function, there are potholes, washing away of

pavements, fallen bridges, old age among others. These problems have made it difficult, expensive and more odious to move products and services from point of production to that of consumption, farm produce from rural to urban centers, which often lead to loss of man- hour and high cost of goods and services. It is against this background that this study intend to access road transport infrastructure development in Kaduna state.

The following questions will guide this research on road transport infrastructure development in Kaduna state and are set as follows:

i.      What is the state of Road Transport Infrastructure in Kaduna state?

ii.     What are the types of Road Transport Infrastructure in Kaduna state?

iii.     Are Road Transport Infrastructure functional in Kaduna state?

iv.    How are the Road transport Infrastructure distributed among senatorial zones in Kaduna

State?

1.3       Aim and Objectives

The aim of this study is to assess road transportation infrastructure development in

Kaduna state. This aim will be achieved through the following objectives which are to;

i.   Highlight the state of Road Transport Infrastructure in Kaduna state.

ii.  Characterize the types of Road Transport Infrastructure in Kaduna state.

iii. Assess the functional standard of Road Transport Infrastructure in Kaduna state

iv. Determine the distribution of Road Transport Infrastructure by senatorial zones in Kaduna

State

1.4 Justification of the Study

Road Transportation Infrastructure remain the main mode of Transportation among other mode in Kaduna state. The importance of road maintenance in achieving efficient road transport delivery cannot be overemphasized as the consequences of neglect are enormous and costly.

While many attempt have been made, or put in place by different Transportation expert in the country, in order to reduce the chaotic and unpleasant state or condition of road Transport infrastructure, yet, all these attempt have little impact toward reducing the problem associated with our road furniture‘s.

To the best knowledge of the researcher, only few studies attempted an assessment of Road Transport infrastructure in Kaduna state, and the existing few, attempted to assess few Road Transport Infrastructure, say four or five.

This research will assess the state, types, functionality as well as distribution of thirteen (13) Road Transport Infrastructure in Kaduna state. Therefore, this research become imperative as it will assess and identify the problems associated with the roads under study and make positive recommendations to government for necessary actions.

1.5       Scope and Limitation of the Study

The five (5) major highways in Kaduna State that are of interest in the study, cut- across the three geo-political zones, namely, Zone one (1) that comprise of Soba, Sabon

Gari, Lere, Kubau, Ikara, Makarfi, Kudan and Zaria Local governments.   Zone two (2) which comprises Birnin Gwari, Giwa, Chikun, Igabi, Kajuru, Kaduna north and Kaduna south local governments. Zone three (3) consists of Sanga, Jaba, Jama‘a, Kachia, Kagarko, Kauru, Kaura and Zangon Kataf local governments. The five major highways are;

1.   Kaduna-Zaria highway, which is 75 Km, with National highway identification code (A2)

and cut across Kaduna, Katabu, Jaji, to Zaria,

2.   Kaduna-Lere highway, which is 340 Km, with National identification number (A235), and cut across Kujama, Kasuwan Magani, Kufana, Idon, Unguwan patachi, Kachia, Zonkwa, Samarun Kataf, Manchok, Kaura,Mangu, to Lere.

3.   Kaduna-Birnin Gwari highway, which is 123 Km, with National highway identification code (A125), and  cut  across  Buruku,  Kufara  Kan  Hauwa,  Kwanan  mutuwa to  Birnin Gwari.

4.   Kaduna-Kagarko highway, which is 164 Km, with National highway identification code

(A124) and cut across Rijana, Jere to Kagarko.

5.    Zaria-Kauru highway, which is 109 Km, with National highway identification code (A236)

and cut across Rahama, Soba, Dutsen wai, Pambegua, to Kauru. (See fig 1).

Consequently, 811 km representing 28.8% of total length of Federal Road in Kaduna state which is 2,820km (Federal Bureau of Statistics) has been picked and assessed. The chosen highways are shown in (figure 1) below

An Assessment of Local Government Financing in Nigeria (A case study of Karu Local Government Area, Nasarawa State)

An Assessment of Local Government Financing in Nigeria

(A case study of Karu Local Government Area, Nasarawa State)

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1. Background to the Study

Local government is recognized by the 1999 constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria as the third tier of government within the tripartite federal structure of governance in Nigeria, with the state and federal government as the super ordinate government. The government in Nigeria which exists at tripartite arrangement (federal, state and local government) plays complimentary roles to each other to meet the needs of the people which include infrastructural facilities (Okpata 2004).

Local government is seen as a public sector organization, the third tier government with assigned functions and responsibilities, administrative structure and financial management both for maintaining itself and rendering it’s statutory assigned functions to it’s citizens (Uguru 2011). Local government authorities as a third tier of government in Nigeria are very important in the execution of both central and component government policies and programmes. It is the nearest government that deals with the problems of the masses of the country, especially the grassroots.

Finance is the fuel of any form of administration, either private or public. At the local government level, it constitutes the lubricants for the wheel of good administration. According to Hassan (2011), finance is a thread that runs round the cloth, if the thread is pulled wrongly at one end, it will affect the design of the cloth and destroy its beauty. Therefore, finance in any organization must be handled with care and must be disbursed according to laid down rules and regulations. A sound financial administration is the core of good efficient, effectives and equity which are the guiding principles of financial management.

Fajobi (2010) argued that the acute dearth of fund currently facing the local government could besquarely attributed to lack of creativity on the part of the local government in seeking alternative sources tocomplement the allocation from the Federation Account. Most local governments are suffering from hang-overof overdependence on the centre assistance, a norm during the military governance. They are yet to break awayfrom the practice of relying almost entirely on hand-out from the Federal Government. The federal government,in turn also depended entirely on revenue from oil and its apportionment of the lion’s share of the FederationAccount to itself. Local government will continue to be one of the prime institutional movers of development inNigeria and their importance and impact on the daily life of citizens cannot be over-emphasized. People areintimately affected by the activities of local government on a day-to-day basis and Nigeria, in particular, localgovernments, have historically provided services of importance to citizens, literally from cradle to grave. Thestandard of living of Nigerians either in rural or urban areas are inevitably affected by local governmentactivities through the provision or non provision of basic services such as water supply, roads, health andeducational services etc. Local governments also remain the focal point of promotion of development andcultural revival through community development projects and mobilization of human and material resources fordevelopments.

In view of the above, finance has remained the most critical policy issue in the local government administration in Nigeria. None of the local government councils in the polity can as a matter of fact survive without a sound financial base. Owing therefore to the development responsibilities place on local governments,there is need for adequate financing of this tier of government. As Adamolekun (1983) had noted, a dominant theme in intergovernmental relation studies is the different attempt made to administer federal finance to the satisfaction of each level of government. Danjuma (1994) also noted that the existence of a federal system withits accompany political units necessitate a revenue sharing arrangement to enable its units to carry out its constitutionally assigned responsibilities.Therefore,this study seek to carryout an assessment of local government financing in Nigeria with particular reference to Karu Local Government Area of Nasarawa State.

1. Statement of the problem

The 1976 local government reform gave prominenceto local government making it possible for them to have legal entities which in turn entitled them to performcertain functions that have since been contained in the 1979, 1989 and 1999 Federal Republic of Nigeriaconstitution. Among the problemsfaced by local government in Nigeria, it is quite clear that the most recurrent ones are finance and sizeablemismatch between their statutory functions and responsibilities; the flow of financial resources available to them;and constraining limits of their tax-raising powers or fiscal jurisdictions.There is no gainsaying the fact that in Nigeria, the degree of decentralization of expenditure is higherthan the degree of decentralization of revenue thereby causing a great divergence between sources of revenueand functional expenditure in the local government hence creating an imbalance between income and expenditure. This study is therefore; set to assess local government financing in Nigeria.

1.3       Objectives of the Study

The broad objective of this study is to assess local government financing in Nigeria –  A case study of Karu Local Government Area of Nasarawa State. Hence; the following specific objectives will be actualized:

1. To identify the source of financein Karu local government.
2. To ascertain the various challenges surrounding revenue generation for development.
3. To evaluate the impact of financing on the development of Karu Local Government Area of Nasarawa State.

1.4       Research Questions

In line with the objectives of the study, the following research questions will pilot the study:

1. What are the various source of finance in Karu local government?
2. What are the challenges of revenue generation for development in Karu Local Government of Nasarawa State?
3. What are the impact of financing on the development of Karu Local Government Area of NasarawaState.

1.5       Significance of the Study

The primary importance of this study is that it assess local government financing in Nigeria with particular references to Karu Local government of Nasarawa State. This will in essence be of great significance to local government administrators, students of public administration and other related departments, other researchers, the state and federal government as strategy can be replicated.

1.6       Scope of the Study

The focus of this study is to assess local government financing in Nigeria but limited to Karu Local Government Area of Nasarawa State.

1.7       Operational Definition of Terms

Local Government: This is defined as Government at the local level exercised through representative council established by law to exercise specific powers within defined areas.

Finance: In the context of this study, is defined as the fund required by the government to perform its functions.

Strategy: In this study, this is defined as a systematic proposed way to achieve a particular aim or objective.

Development: This is defined as the multidimensional expansion in the economic, political and behavioral attitudes of a particular community, state or country.

Internally Generated Revenue: This refers to the revenue or money collected by the local government from its internal sources (within the Local Government Area). The internal sources of revenue comprise many major and miscellaneous items aggregated to provide the required fund for financing the enormous functions ascribed to local government as third tier of government.

AN ASSESSMENT OF BACKGROUND RADIATION LEVEL OF SOME SELECTED MINING PROCESSING IN NASARAWA

AN ASSESSMENT OF BACKGROUND RADIATION LEVEL OF SOME SELECTED MINING PROCESSING IN NASARAWA

ABSTRACT

Human is exposed to background radiation in their environment with or without their consent; and the exposure to natural background radiation is an unpreventable event on earth. The assessment was conducted for the determination of the amount of background radiation revel of some selected mining processing in Nasarawa. This was carried out using RDS-200 universal survey meter. The assessment was done on the mining processing ranges from 0.501msv/yr to 0.758msv/yr. for the indoor reading and 0.139msv/yr to 0.267msv/yr for the outdoor reading. The radiation levels in these selected mining processing were found to be within the safe limit. These results would serve as a baseline upon which another exposures would be assessed and in the future serve as reference for dosimetry and decontamination in situation of radiation poisoning of these mining processing.

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1       Background of the Study

Human exposure to background radiation is unavoidable. This is because we live in a “sea of radiation”. It is omnipresence nature in the atmosphere, terrestrial deposits and in our body makes it a unique area of assessing energy in our environment. Background Radiation is a long wavelength electromagnetic radiation that hits the earth uniformly from all direction. It represents energy left over from the “big bang” the explosion of the beginning of the universe. What makes it a background radiation is because of man’s environment most people often associate the word radiation with ionizing radiation (e.g as occurring in nuclear weapons, nuclear reaction) but it can also refer to electromagnetic radiation (i.e radio waves, infrared light, visible light and x-rays). This can also be ionizing radiation to acoustic radiation because energy radiate i.e. travels outwardly froth a source called an emitter in straight lines in all directions (Agba, 2016).

Natural Background radiation accounts for 80% of radiation source in our environment which includes cosmic radiation from the sun and outer space and consists of positives charged particles, form radioactive material found on earth surface as in rocks and soil as well as radiation in our bodies in form of element liker potassium 40. The first two sources mentioned as referred to as external sources of natural background radiation while the last is called the internal source of natural background radiation. The other 20% comes from the artificial background source like the nuclear power plants, nuclear weapon testing and medical procedures (x-rays and mammography) in medicine and dentistry (ICRP, 2020).

Radiation is classified in two forms based on energy level; the ionization form of radiation which is the high energy radiation capable of ionizing atoms. It includes Alpha Particles bête particles, gamma rays and neutrons. And the non-ionization form of radiation which is a low frequency and energy radiation. It includes ultraviolet rays, visible light microwaves, and radio waves.

Over the years the level of background radiation in our surrounding has grown significantly. A study conducted by Japan’s institute of radiological studies in 1977 shows that the increase in radiation level was due to nuclear power plant production. Other factors regarded as major contributors include nuclear reactor explosion mining activities, industrial waste and effluent from factories estimate of dose contribution in the environment shows that 85% of radiation dose received by man are derived from natural radionuclide while the remaining 15% comes from cosmic rays and nuclear process (IAEA, 2016).

In the year 2000, the average and the average background radiation for human being amounts to about 2.4 micro sievert per year (µSv/yr) and about 1µSv/yr comes from nuclear activities (UNCEAR, 2020). At sea level, the average cosmic radiation dose is about 26 mRem per year. At high elevation, the amount of atmosphere shielding cosmic rays decreases and thus the dose increases. Radioactive elements like uranium, thorium and atom which are the terrestrial emitting radio nuclides are also regarded as contributors to high level of background radiation (Ellwell, 2018). Radon for instance is a current health concern – radon gas formed from radioactive decay of natural uranium in the soil. It emits alpha radiation, raises from soil under houses and can build up in homes particularly well insulated homes (UNCEAR, 2020).

Exposure to radiation can cause severe damage to human biological system (Emeka, 2017). Although a dose of 25 Rems which is equivalent to 0.25mSv causes some detectable changes in blood, doses to near 100 Rems usually have no immediate effect. Dose above 100 Rems causes the first signs of nausea, vomiting, headache, some lost of white blood cells. Dose of 300 Rems on more cause temporary hair loss but also more significantly internal harm including damage to nerve cells and cells that line up the digestive tract (Agba, 2016). Severe loss of white blood cells which are the body defense system makes a radiation victim vulnerable to diseases. Radiation also reduces the blood platelets which aid blood clotting, so victims of radiation are vulnerable to hemorrhaging. Half of the people exposed to 450 Rems die and dose of 800 Rems are fatal. The main way of saving the cells of the body is to protect it from exposure to radiation. This is why radiation monitoring and measurement are quite essential in our society today (Hay, 2016).

1.2       Statement of the Problem

According to Agba et al., (2016), every person is exposed daily to variety of radiation whether he recognize it or not. This is due to the various activities in our immediate surroundings. In fact, the context of background radiation over the years has passed in silence especially in developing countries like ours Nigeria. If it is mentioned at all, it is mostly the theoretical possibilities that are highlighted and negligence in the study especially on it effect to man in his surrounding will continue to leave a threat to human existence. The study finds solution to question like; the various factors that lead to the variation in background radiation of different indoor surrounding of some selected mining processing in Nasarawa, the hazards of man’s continual exposure to radiation through different radiation emitting source and the possible protection and control measures to its exposure.

1.3       Aim and Objectives

1.3.1 Aim

The aim of this project is to measure the background radiation level of some selected mining processing in Nasarawa.

1.3.2    Objectives

In view of the aim of the study, the specific objective of the study will include:

1. To evaluate the amount of radiation present in mining processing in Nasarawa
2. To review the effects of long exposure to radiation
3. To create awareness of the possible danger posed by long exposure to radiation sources.

1.4       Justification of the Study

The limit of radiation exposure for non radiation workers is 1millisievert/yr while that for radiation workers is 20 millisievert average 5yrs according to the International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP). As such there is a need to know the amount of background radiation exposure in the mining processing from which the annual exposure in the tin shade can be calculated and compared with international limit started by the ICRP. Hence, there is the need to frequently and increasingly notify the public about the threat posed by radiation to health in general – also information derived from the study will therefore.

1. Provide database for information regarding management of background radiation level in mining processing.
2. Create more awareness on the danger posed by background radiation.
3. Serve as reference for further or subsequent research

1.5       Significance of the Study

The findings of this study will help in creating awareness of certain danger that comes with the background radiation to the workers in the selected mining processing in Nasarawa

1.6       Scope and Limitation of the Study

The study will focus on the assessment of the background radiation level of some selected mining processing in Nasarawa relative to the standard amount of absorbable radiation in order to determine the effect of background radiation to the general public. It is however limited due to the following challenges:

1. Insufficient finance to carry out the research work
2. Limited time
3. Poor cooperation by tin shade owners

PHYLUM ECHINODERMATA

PHYLUM ECHINODERMATA

Echinodermata is a phylum of about 7000 living species distributed among five classes. It is any member of the phylum Echinodermata which comes from the Ancient Greek  ‘hedgehog’, and ‘skin’ of marine animals. Echinoderms are found on the sea bed at every ocean depth, from the intertidal zone to the abyssal zone. The phylum Echinodermata is the second-largest grouping of deuterostomes (a superphylum), after the chordates (which include the vertebrates, such as birds, fishes, mammals, and reptiles). Echinoderms are the largest phylum that has no freshwater or terrestrial members. The echinoderms are important both ecologically and geologically.

Echinoderms are important both ecologically and geologically. Ecologically, there are few other groupings so abundant in the biotic desert of the deep sea, as well as shallower oceans. Most echinoderms are able to reproduce asexually and regenerate tissue, organs, and limbs; in some cases, they can undergo complete regeneration from a single limb. Geologically, the value of echinoderms is in their ossified skeletons, which are major contributors to many limestone formations, and can provide valuable clues as to the geological environment. An interesting feature of the phylum Echinodermata is that all the organisms belonging to this phylum are marine.Till date, there have been no traces of any terrestrial or freshwater Echinoderms.These are multicellular organisms with well-developed organ systems. All the animals belonging to this phylum share the same characteristics features. They are colourful organisms with unique shapes.

The Echinoderms are found in sea-depths as well as in the intertidal zones. An interesting feature of the phylum Echinodermata is that all the organisms belonging to this phylum are marine. None of the organisms is freshwater or marine.The water vascular system present in echinoderms accounts for gaseous exchange, circulation of nutrients and waste elimination.

Echinoderms primarily use their tube feet to move about, though some sea urchins also use their spines. The tube feet typically have a tip shaped like a suction pad in which a vacuum can be created by contraction of muscles. This along with some stickiness provided by the secretion of mucus provides adhesion. Waves of tube feet contractions and relaxations move along the adherent surface and the animal moves slowly along.

The development of an echinoderm begins with a bilaterally symmetrical embryo, with a coeloblastula developing first. Gastrulation marks the opening of the “second mouth” that places echinoderms within the deuterostomes, and the mesoderm, which will host the skeleton, migrates inwards. The secondary body cavity, the coelom, forms by the partitioning of three body cavities. The larvae are mostly planktonic but in some species the eggs are retained inside the female and in some the female broods the larvae.

Echinoderms are globally distributed in almost all depths, latitudes and environments in the ocean. They reach highest diversity in reef environments but are also widespread on shallow shores, around the poles – refugia where crinoids are at their most abundant – and throughout the deep ocean, where bottom-dwelling and burrowing sea cucumbers are common – sometimes accounting for up to 90% of organisms. While almost all echinoderms are benthic – that is, they live on the sea floor – some sea-lilies can swim at great velocity for brief periods of time, and a few deep-sea sea cucumbers are fully floating.

CLASSIFICATION OF PHYLUM ECHINODERMATA

The phylum echinoderms is divided into five extant classes: Asteroidea (sea stars), Ophiuroidea (brittle stars), Echinoidea (sea urchins and sand dollars), Crinoidea (sea lilies or feather stars), and Holothuroidea (sea cucumbers).

CHARACTERISTICS OF PHYLUM ECHINODERMATA

1. They have a star-like appearance and are spherical or elongated.
2. They are exclusively marine animals.
3. The organisms are spiny-skinned.
4. They exhibit organ system level of organization. Most members have a circulatory system as well as a digestive system.
5. They are triploblastic and have a coelomic cavity.
6. The skeleton is made up of calcium carbonate.
7. They have an open circulatory system.
8. They respire through gills or cloacal respiratory tree.
9. They have a simple radial nervous system and the excretory system are absent.
10. The body is unsegmented with no distinct head. The mouth is present on the ventral side while the anus is on the dorsal side.

Economic importance of preservation

Microorganism  are economically important as these microorganisms are used by humans for many purposes. The beneficial uses of microorganism include the production of traditional foods such as fudge, yogurt, cheese, and vinegar. Microbes are also important in agriculture for the compost and fertilizer production.

Preservation has a positive economic impact on the communities that envision the potential benefits of thoughtful planning.

Preservation of open space, trails, parks and greenways creates jobs, enhances property values, expands local businesses, attracts new or relocating businesses, increases local tax revenues, decreases local government expenditures through the natural provision of ecosystem services, decreases the cost of recreation and promotes a sense of local community.

The following are economic importance of preserving microorganism:

1. Food processing: Sourdough bread is made to rise by fermentation, with a leaven that consists of microorganism, often combined with wild yeast enzymes.^[1] The milk-souring microorganisml genus Lactobacillus is used to make yogurt and cheese. Microorganism are also used to form organic acids in pickles and vinegar.
2. Biotechnology: Biotechnology involves the use of microorganisms including microorganism in the manufacturing and services industries. These include chemical manufacturing such as ethanol, acetone, organic acid, enzymes, and perfumes. Microorganism are important in the production of many dietary supplements and pharmaceuticals. For example, Escherichia coli is used for commercial preparation of riboflavin and vitamin K.^[3] E. coli is also used to produce D-amino acids such as D-p-hydroxyphenylglycine, an important intermediate for synthesis of the antibiotic amoxicillin.
3. Genetic engineering: Genetic engineering is the manipulation of gene. It is also called recombinant DNA technology. In genetic engineering, pieces of DNA (genes) are introduced into a host by a variety of techniques, one of the earliest being the use of a virus vector. The foreign DNA becomes a permanent feature of the host, and is replicated and passed on to daughter cells along with the rest of its DNA.^[5] Microorganisml cells are transformed and used in production of commercially important products. Examples include production of human insulin (used to treat diabetes)^[6] and human growth hormone (somatotrophin used to treat pituitary dwarfism).
4. Pest control: Microorganism can also be used in the place of pesticides in biological pest control. This commonly uses Bacillus thuringiensis (BT), a Gram-positive, soil-dwelling bacterium. This bacterium is used as a Lepidopteran-specific insecticide under trade names such as Dipel and Thuricide. Because of their specificity, these pesticides are regarded as environmentally friendly, with little effect on humans, wildlife, pollinators, or other beneficial insects.
5. Tanning Of Leather: Microorganism helps purify animal hides to make them easy, clean, and fit to use.

6.      Medicines: Microorganism are used to create multiple antibiotics such as Streptomycin from the microorganism streptococcus. Microorganism can also be used to create vaccines to prevent several diseases.

REFERENCES

1. Gadsby, P; Weeks, E. “The Biology of… Sourdough”. Discover. Discover Magazine. Retrieved September 16, 2019.
2. McGee, H (2004). On Food and Cooking: The Science and Lore of the Kitchen. New York: Scribner, pp. 291–296. ISBN 0-684-80001-2.
3. Healthwise, Incorporated (2010-06-28). “Throat Culture”. WebMD. Archived from the original on 2013-03-17. Retrieved 2013-03-10.
4. Old, D.C.; Duguid, J.P. (1970). “Selective Outgrowth of Fimbriate Bacteria in Static Liquid Medium”. Journal of Bacteriology. American Madigan, Michael T. (2012). Brock biology of microorganisms (13th ed.). San Francisco: Benjamin Cummings. ISBN 9780321649638.
5. Stöhr, Sabine (2014). “Echinodermata”. WoRMS. World Register of Marine Species. Retrieved 23 February 2014.Richard Fox. “Asterias forbesi”. Invertebrate Anatomy OnLine. Lander University. Retrieved 19 May 2012.

Preservation Of Organism And List The Common Method Of Preservation Of Vertebrates And Invertebrate

Preservation Of Organism And List The Common Method Of Preservation Of Vertebrates And Invertebrate

Preservation is the act, process, or result of preserving something: such as a the activity or process of keeping something valued alive, intact, or free from damage or decay.

Microorganisms require special preservation methods in order to ensure optimal long-term viability and genetic stability. The preservation methods used in the collections may differ.

Storage in liquid nitrogen is one of the best methods for preserving all microorganisms. For some viruses, it may be better to freeze the sample rapidly, but slow freezing with a cryoprotective agent is desirable for all other organisms to retain maximum viability or infectivity.

Preservation of micro-organisms by desiccation has been the preferred method for long term storage of cultures for decades. There are extensive culture collections that depend on these drying methods to preserve a huge diversity of cells for future propagation. In addition to culture collections, food and pharmaceutical industries have found drying technologies to be the preferred methods for preserving a multitude of different food and drug preparations in bulk quantities. Even with this worldwide usage of drying technologies, it would appear that there are still many varied methods of desiccating micro-organisms and that there is no generic drying method for all applications

Methods of preservation of vertebrates and invertebrates

The following points highlight the top six methods that are used for preservation of organisms. The methods are:

1. Agar Slant Culture
2. Agar Slant Culture Covered with Oil
3. Saline Suspension
4. Preservation at Very Low Temperature
5. Preservation by Drying in Vacuum
6. Lyophilization or Freeze Drying.
7. Agar Slant Culture: Agar slants are prepared in vitro. After inoculation slants are incubated for a period of 24h and then stored in a refrigerator. These cultures require periodic transfer after six months.
8. Agar Slant Culture Covered with Oil: The agar slants are incubated after inoculation until profuse growth appears. These are then covered with sterile mineral oil to a depth of 1 cm above the tip of the slanted surface. Transfers are made by removing a loopful of growth; touching the loop to the glass surface to drain off excess oil in the medium and then preserving the initial block culture.
9. Saline Suspension: High concentration of sodium chloride is used as inhibitor of microorganisml growth. Microorganism are suspended in 1 % salt solution in screw cap tubes to prevent evaporation. The tubes are stored at room temperature and transfers are made on agar slants.
10. Preservation at Very Low Temperature: The organisms are suspended in a nutrient broth containing 15% glycerol, or in skimmed milk containing 7.5% glucose. The suspensions are frozen and stored at -15°C to -30°C.  The ready availability of liquid nitrogen (-196°C) has provided another means of preservation of stock cultures. In this procedure, the cultures are frozen with a protective agent (glycerol or dimethyl sulfoxide) in sealed ampules. The frozen cultures are kept in liquid nitrogen flask.
11. Preservation by Drying in Vacuum: The organisms are dried over CaCl₂ in a vacuum, then stored in the refrigerator. The organism survives longer than when air dried.
12. Lyophilization or Freeze Drying: The microbial suspension is placed in small vials. A thin film is frozen over the inside surface of the vial by rotating it in a mixture of dry ice or alcohol or acetone at a temperature of -78°C. The vials are connected to a high vacuum line. This dries the organism while still frozen. Finally, the ampoules are sealed off in a vacuum with a small flame.

EVALUATION OF ANTIMICROBIAL RESISTANCE OF MICROORGANISMS ISOLATED FROM NIGERIA CURRENCY NOTES

EVALUATION OF ANTIMICROBIAL RESISTANCE OF MICROORGANISMS ISOLATED FROM NIGERIA CURRENCY NOTES

ABSTRACT

Currency is a public support tool for exchange of commodity and services. It is prevalent practice for acquiring bread to broast and bath to bed as connected all being together irrespectively of race and occupation. Currency notes along with their denomination values carry pathogens if contaminated and will act as an agent for infection transference. Therefore the object of this cross-sectional study was to evaluate the antimicrobial resistance of bacteria and fungi isolated from Nigeria Currency notes. Currency notes under study were assessed through microbiological culture, microscopic and biochemical visualization techniques. The results from this cross-sectional study suggested that, the Nigeria higher currency note which include N100, N200, N500 and N1000 harbors the higher micro organisms which is as a result of the texture. While the lower denomination which include N5, N10, N20 and N50 made of polymer has the lower contamination. Among the bacteria isolated, Staphylococcus aureus, and Escherichia coli were found to be the most prevalent followed by Bacilluscerus and Salmonellatyphi. Aspergillus niger and Rhizopus spp were found to be the most prevalent among the fungi isolated followed by Mushroom razmorous and Trichophyton. The outcomes of this study revealed that, currency notes can be a source of microbe transmission causing infectious diseases represent public health hazards to the community and industrial.

CHAPTER ONE

1.0       Introduction

Background of the Study

Paper currency is widely utilized as a medium of exchange all through the world for trading (Sadawarte et al., 2014) In regular transaction, paper currency is being bandied by different categories of individual with the unhygienic condition and in this way, polluted with different kinds of pathogenic microorganisms (Borah et al., 2012). The Nigerian paper currency (naira note) whose denomination includes N5, N10, N20, N50, N100, N200,N500, and N1000 is used aslegal tender for various purposes, depending on the handler of the note(s).

The crude materials that are utilized for making paper currency assume a huge role in harboring microorganisms. The blend of cotton and linen used for making paper currency offers surface area for microorganism to grow. Previous study demonstrated that lower denomination notes get higher microbial contamination since they stay longer in circulation and exchanged more frequently (Khalil et al., 2014).

Paper currencies are normally defiled byvarious ways like sneezing, coughing, contacting with tainted hands ormaterials and placement on grimy place like pockets, socks, shoes and under floor covering (Moosavy, et al., 2013). In some fish, poultry and vegetable markets, the salesperson handle cash and their particular sales item simultaneously evading hand washing between their works. This practice enhances the danger of cross-contamination of microorganisms between vendors and purchasers (Michaels, et al., 2012). Studies have shown that money serves as a formite for transferring various types of pathogenic microorganisms such as Escherichia coli, Salmonella typhi, Staphylococcus aureus, Klebsiella, Pseudomonas, Aerobacter, and streptococcus faecalis among others  pathogenic microorganisms. Some of these pathogens are known to be important reservoirs for multidrug resistance gene, hence transferring them to otherpathogens.

Microorganisms are frequently transmitted through water, air, food and fomites (Borah, et al., 2011). Paper currency contaminated by organisms might act as fomites, play’s a significant role in the transmission of microorganisms and are therefore responsible for spreading communicable diseases (Borah et al., 2011). Paper currency notes thus presents specific hazard to public health as contagious diseases can spread through this paper currency (Borah et al., 2011).

Most of the paper currency are imbued with disinfectants to restrain the growth of microorganisms: yet, just a few pathogens are isolated from paper currency notes as it persists in circulation for a long time (Hanash et al., 2015). Different pathogenic microorganisms that harbor in paper currency which are related to gastroenteritis, throatdisease,pneumonia, urino-genital tract contamination, peptic ulcers and lung abscess have been accounted from various laces of the world (Hanash et al., 2015).

Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is now considered as one of the most serious global threats to human health as evidenced by the WHO’s report on antimicrobial resistance (WHO, 2018). Recently, multidrug resistance capabilities of microorganisms have turned out to be a major worry to public wellbeing and numerous infections have become harder to treat (Hanash et al., 2015). According to previous studies (Akond et al., 2015: Mukharjee et al., 20 17) various microorganisms isolated from paper money showed drug resistance to normally used antibiotics. Firoozeh et al. (2017) found high resistance rates of Staphylococcus spp, and Enterococci spp. against tetracycline, ampicillin and erythromycin isolated from paper currency. All class of individuals, including children habitually handles paper currencies and therefore the contaminated notes play a significant role in spreading of diseases.

Most of the people in rural and urban region take food without washing their hands after handling money and saliva is used to count the money increasing the chance of getting infection (Hosen et al., 2006). In Nigeria, majority of people do not appropriately wash hand and are ignorant of various transmissible diseases caused by pathogenic microorganisms in currency handling (Umeh et al., 2017). Just as there are a few reports on the microbial contamination of paper currency in the world, reports on Nigeria are also scanty (Hosen et al., 2006: Ahmed et al., 2010), Considering the above stated facts, this study was conducted to evaluate the antibiotics resistance of bacterial isolated from currency note.

Statement of the Problems

Money is not usually suitable for tile survival of microorganisms except for some that are resistant to external conditions and non-resistant forms of spores. In addition, the general hygiene levels of a community or society contribute to the amount of microbes found on the Naira notes and thus the chance of transmission during handling of money. Contamination of Naira notes by pathogenic microorganisms is of public health concern as contaminated Naira notes could be a source of transmitting microbial pathogens. Movement of Naira notes from hand to hand makes it more prone to contamination by pathogenic organisms. Polymer currency therefore, poses a serious threat to public health since communicable diseases could also be contracted through formites.

Currency is handled by all categories of people and may be contaminated during coughing, sneezing, touching with hands and placement on dirty surfaces. Many people tongue-wet their fingers when counting money and contaminate their fingers as well as currency notes. So, it is obvious that gets on hands may be transferred to money and vice-versa. Paper banknotes have a large surface area for bacterial attachment and would be a vector for transmission of potentially pathogenic microorganisms between populations (Umeh et al., 2017). The risk of microbial transfer by paper currency is influenced by factors such as paper value and duration of usage. Various pathogens which may cause throat infection, pneumonia, peptic ulcers, tonsillitis, urino-genital tract infections, gastro enteritis and lung abscess had been reported (Firoozeh et al. 2017). It is against these problems that this study seek to evaluate the antibiotics resistance of bacteria isolated from currency notes.

Aims of the Study

The aim of this study is to evaluate the antimicrobial resistance of bacteria and fungi isolated from Nigeria Currency notes.

Objectives of the Study

The specific objectives of this study include the following:

1. To isolate the bacteria and fungi from Nigeria currency notes
2. To enumerate the bacteria and fungi isolated from Nigeria currency notes.
3. To determine the antimicrobial susceptibility of the bacteria isolated from the currency note.

THE USE OF LOCAL PIGMENT AND EXTENDER FOR THE FORMULATION AND PRODUCTION OF EMULSION PAINTS

THE USE OF LOCAL PIGMENT AND EXTENDER FOR THE FORMULATION AND PRODUCTION OF EMULSION PAINTS

ABSTRACT

This study uses local pigment and extender for the formulation and production of emulsion paints. The emulsion paint was produced using water, hibiscus flower, hexane, yellow oxide (colour), Bermacol, Acrylate, Deformer, Gernapour, Texanol and ammonia. The study found that the specific graphic of the emulsion paint was found to be 25kg/m³, the density was 23g/ml while viscosity is at 100m²/s and the drying time of the formulated emulsion paint was found to be between 10 – 13 minutes outside and 10 – 20 minutes inside. the study shows that there was a good compatibility between the pigment and the binder during the paint formulation, which accounts for the deeper colour and good opacity for the emulsion paint formulated. The formulated emulsion was also found to have moderate viscosity which accounts for good flow properties. These results have revealed that the emulsion paints formulated could be used as both indoor and outdoor coatings.

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1       BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

Painting is a unique human activity that have helped the human race to contribute significantly in earning a better livelihood and building a better and more beautified world for ourselves (Akinterinwa, et al, 2018). Paints simply means organic coatings applied to surfaces with the sole aim of imparting both protective and aesthetic functions. Paints and other pigments come in a variety of gloss levels which corresponds to the level of a pigment dispersed in a substance usually called a vehicle or binder, usually polymeric in nature,which adheres to the substrate. The vehicle (i.e the binder) is one of the most important ingredients in paint formulation because it is a film-forming material or oil (Gopalan et al, 2020).

Paint is a fluid, or semi-fluid material which may be applied to surfaces in relatively thin layers, and which changes to a solid coating with time.  The change to a solid material may or may not be reversible, and may occur by evaporation of solvent by chemical reaction, or by a combination of the two. Paints usually consist of vehicle or binder, a pigment which contributes obscurities colour, hardness and bulk to the film, and a solvent or thinner which controls the consistency. Paint is basically classified into two, which are gloss paint and emulsion paint (Osemeahon and Dimas, 2013).

Gloss paints (oil-based paints) are paints that may be classified according to whether the drying mechanism is predominantly solvent evaporation, oxidation or some chemical reaction.  Gloss paints which dry essentially by solvent evaporation, rely on a fairly hard resin as the vehicle. Paints which dry by oxidation, the vehicle is usually an oil or an oil-based varnish, these usually contains driers to accelerate the drying of the oil.  Paint based essentially on oil with suitable pigment such as titanium dioxide, extenders, and usually zinc-oxide and white lead, are conventional outside house paints because these materials give the combination of properties which meet this requirement (Osemeahon and Dimas, 2013).

On the other hand, Emulsion paint is commonly water-based, with acrylic or vinyl added to make it more durable and easier to apply to walls and ceilings. These are paints with water-soluble vehicle and they include, calcimines, in which the vehicle is glue and case-in paints.  Emulsions are useful because they allow ways to deliver active materials in water which is inexpensive and innocuous. A related advantage of emulsions is they allow dilution of these active ingredients to an optimal concentration (Osemeahon and Dimas, 2013). Emulsions are commonly used in many major chemical industries. After an emulsion paint is applied, the water evaporates and the polymer particles pack closely and fuse together to form a continuous film. The use of water rather than an organic liquid means that emulsion paints produce fewer VOC (volatile organic compounds) when they are used.

Emulsion is the most popular paint for walls and a ceiling due to the fact that it is water based and has less smell, dries comparatively quickly and is easy to apply. This fact has necessitated the need to search for an appropriated paint binder which can challenge the good properties of oil paint on one hand and use water as a solvent on the other hand poly (vinyl acetate) (PVA), is one of such binders commonly used for emulsion paint formulation. On the contrary, paints derived from PVA are characterized by poor water, chemical and water resistances, flexibility, gloss and durability etc.

1.2       STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

In recent decades, conventional paints are more and more replaced by environmentally friendly formulas (Traumann et al., 2014)whose use is recommended due to ecological considerations, specifically the reduction of volatile organic compounds emissions (Tucaliuc, 2014) and economic aspectslow volumes of organic solvents which tend to have a limited availability and are expensive.  Conventional paints (Oil-based paint) is superior to emulsion paint in many respects such as water resistant, flexibility, gloss and durability. However, despite the superiority of oil paint over emulsion paint many countries are now threatening to band it usage through appropriate legislation due to it negative effect to the environment (Habibu, 2011). Many functional chemical ingredients in paints are not water soluble and require alcohol or other organic solvents to form solutions. These solvents may be costly, hazardous to handle, or toxic. Due to these problems, it has becomes necessary to produce paint from local and synthesized materials. This give rise to the need to carryout this study on the use of local pigment and extender for the formulation and production of emulsion paints.

1.3       OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY

Aim

The aim of this study is to use local pigment and extender for the formulation and production of emulsion paints.

Objectives

1. To identify the local pigment and extender that will be used for the production of emulsion paints
2. To determine thespecific gravity of emulsion paint
3. To determinetheresistance of the emulsion paints to wet abrasion paint
4. To determine the kinematic viscosity of the paint
5. To determinethe temperature stability of the paint
6. To determine the drying time of the paint produced

1.4       JUSTIFICATION OF THE STUDY

The justification of this work is that

• high quality local pigment and extenders are abundant in Nigeria and if properly sourced and processed by paint industries it will help in increasing the quantity of local paint, hence reducing the cost of paint production and conserve foreign exchange (forex) and
• It will provide job opportunities and reduce unemployment in the country.

1.5       SCOPE OF THE STUDY

The scope of this study includes the formulation and production of emulsion paint using locally available pigment and extender as a binder. Effects of some physical properties such as drying time, viscosity, elongational break, density, melting point, moisture uptake, refractive index was determined.

1.6       SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

On considering the high cost of imported raw materials for the production of emulsion paint in the paint industry, which at the end of the production affect the market price, likewise causing economy constrain, there is need to lookout for those locally available raw materials such as pigments and extenders (e.g calcium carbonate) which will give such desirable qualities and properties as those of imported raw materials (e.g Titanium Dioxide).

It will be interesting to note that science and engineering have some of possible solutions towards reduction of high cost of emulsion paint production and also this research work is directed towards the vital needs for the use of local pigments and extenders as raw materials for the production of emulsion paint of high quality and standards which will stand the test of time and also compete with those emulsion paints produced with imported raw materials.

Finally, this research work will be of more importance to the paint manufacturers in the country, who spend lots of money for importations of raw materials, while they are bless with much raw materials as pigments and extenders for emulsion paint production in the country.