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Tuesday, 13 January 2026

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Saturday, 4 March 2023

Communication

Communication

Communication is simply the act of transferring information from one place to another. Although this is a simple definition, when we think about how we may communicate the subject becomes a lot more complex. There are various categories of communication and more than one may occur at any time.

The different categories of communication are:

Spoken or Verbal Communication: face-to-face, telephone, radio or television and other media.
Non-Verbal Communication: body language, gestures, how we dress or act – even our scent.
Written Communication: letters, e-mails, books, magazines, the Internet or via other media.
Visualizations: graphs and charts, maps, logos and other visualizations can communicate messages.

The process of interpersonal communication cannot be regarded as a phenomena which simply ‘happens’, but should be seen as a process which involves participants negotiating their role in this process, whether consciously or unconsciously.

Senders and receivers are of course vital in communication. In face-to-face communication the roles of the sender and receiver are not distinct as both parties communicate with each other, even if in very subtle ways such as through eye-contact (or lack of) and general body language. There are many other subtle ways that we communicate (perhaps even unintentionally) with others, for example the tone of our voice can give clues to our mood or emotional state, whilst hand signals or gestures can add to a spoken message.

In written communication the sender and receiver are more distinct. Until recent times, relatively few writers and publishers were very powerful when it came to communicating the written word. Today we can all write and publish our ideas on the Internet, which has led to an explosion of information and communication possibilities.

The Communication Process

A message or communication is sent by the sender through a communication channel to a receiver, or to multiple receivers. The sender must encode the message (the information being conveyed) into a form that is appropriate to the communication channel, and the receiver(s) then decodes the message to understand its meaning and significance.

Misunderstanding can occur at any stage of the communication process. Effective communication involves minimising potential misunderstanding and overcoming any barriers to communication at each stage in the communication process. See our page: Barriers to Effective Communication for more information.

An effective communicator understands their audience, chooses an appropriate communication channel, hones their message to this channel and encodes the message to reduce misunderstanding by the receiver(s). They will also seek out feedback from the receiver(s) as to how the message is understood and attempt to correct any misunderstanding or confusion as soon as possible. Receivers can use Clarification and Reflection as effective ways to ensure that the message sent has been understood correctly.

Communication Channels

Communication theory states that communication involves a sender and a receiver (or receivers) conveying information through a communication channel.

Communication Channels is the term given to the way in which we communicate. There are multiple communication channels available to us today, for example face-to-face conversations, telephone calls, text messages, email, the Internet (including social media such as Facebook and Twitter), radio and TV, written letters, brochures and reports to name just a few.

Choosing an appropriate communication channel is vital for effective communication as each communication channel has different strengths and weaknesses. For example, broadcasting news of an upcoming event via a written letter might convey the message clearly to one or two individuals but will not be a time or cost effective way to broadcast the message to a large number of people. On the other hand, conveying complex, technical information is better done via a printed document than via a spoken message since the receiver is able to assimilate the information at their own pace and revisit items that they do not fully understand. Written communication is also useful as a way of recording what has been said, for example taking minutes in a meeting.

Encoding Messages

All messages must be encoded into a form that can be conveyed by the communication channel chosen for the message. We all do this every day when transferring abstract thoughts into spoken words or a written form. However, other communication channels require different forms of encoding, e.g. text written for a report will not work well if broadcast via a radio programme, and the short, abbreviated text used in text messages would be inappropriate if sent via a letter. Complex data may be best communicated using a graph or chart or other visualisation.

Effective communicators encode their messages with their intended audience in mind as well as the communication channel. This involves an appropriate use of language, conveying the information simply and clearly, anticipating and eliminating likely causes of confusion and misunderstanding, and knowing the receivers’ experience in decoding other similar communications. Successful encoding of messages is a vital skill in effective communication.

Decoding Messages

Once received, the receivers need to decode the message, and successful decoding is also a vital skill. Individuals will decode and understand messages in different ways based upon any Barriers to Communication which might be present, their experience and understanding of the context of the message, their psychological state, and the time and place of receipt as well as many other potential factors. Understanding how the message will be decoded, and anticipating as many of the potential sources of misunderstanding as possible, is the art of a successful communicator.

Feedback

Receivers of messages are likely to provide feedback on how they have understood the messages through both verbal and non-verbal reactions. Effective communicators should pay close attention to this feedback as it the only way to assess whether the message has been understood as intended, and it allows any confusion to be corrected. Bear in mind that the extent and form of feedback will vary according to the communication channel used: for example feedback during a face-to-face or telephone conversation will be immediate and direct, whilst feedback to messages conveyed via TV or radio will be indirect and may be delayed, or even conveyed through other media such as the Internet.

There are four main problems that prevent people from writing complete, grammatically correct sentences. These problems include: (a) the sentence fragment; (b) the run-on sentence; (c) lack of subject-verb and pronoun-reference agreement; and (d) la ck of parallel structure.

Sentence Fragments

A fragment is a sentence which is not complete, and therefore not grammatically correct. Sentence fragments are problematic because they are disjointed and confusing to the reader. There are three main causes of fragments: (a) a missing subject; (b) a missing verb; (c) “danger” words which are not finished.

There are three ways to check for sentence completeness:

1. Find the subject. A subject is the noun or pronoun about which something is written. To find the subject of a sentence, identify who or what is doing the action. If there is no subject, the sentence is a fragment. Consider the two examples below.

“The student felt nervous before the speech.”

“Thought about leaving the room.”

The first sentence above is complete, because it contains both a subject and a verb. The subject of this sentence is the student. The sentence contains a subject which answers the question, “who or what felt nervous?” The second sentence is a fragment, because there is no identifiable subject. The sentence does not contain a subject which answers the question, “who or what thought about leaving?” To correct the second sentence, one could write: “He thought about leaving the room.” Alternatively, on e could combine the two sentences to form one complete sentence: “The student felt nervous before the speech, and thought about leaving the room.”

2. Find the verb. A verb is the action word in a sentence. Verbs express action, existence or occurrence. To find the verb in a sentence, identify what happened. If there is no identifiable action, the sentence is a fragment. Consider the two examples below.

“Many scientists, such as Einstein, think in strange ways.”

“Many scientists think in strange ways. Einstein, for example.”

This first example above has one complete sentence followed by a fragment. “Einstein, for example” is a fragment because there is no verb. “Einstein” serves as the subject (he is the one doing something), but the rest of the sentence does not express wh at action he is taking. The second example is a complete sentence. In this case, the sentence contains both a subject (scientists) and a verb (think). Alternatively, one could write the following: “Many scientists think in strange ways. Einstein, for example, could not tolerate more than one bar of soap in his home.” In this case, there are two complete sentences. In the second sentence, the subject is Einstein and the verb is “could not tolerate.”

3. Check for “danger” words. A danger word is one which introduces a thought that requires a follow-up phrase. Such words are sometimes called “cliff-hangers” because they begin a statement, but leave it “hanging” without a finish. Consider the phrases below.

“If you come home…”

“When the rain falls…”

“Because he is mean…”

The danger words in the sentences above are “if,” “when” and “because.” When these words are used at the beginning of a phrase, they require a follow-up phrase to conclude the thought.

Example: If you come home on time…then what?
Correct: If you come home on time, I will buy you a present.

Example: When it rains…what happens?

Correct: When it rains, the gutters become clogged.

Example: Because he is mean…what is the result?

Correct: Because he is mean, I will not take a class from him.

Danger words are helpful when writing sentences, but one must be sure to include a concluding phrase when these words are used.

Commonly used danger words include: after, unless, although, how, as if, when, because, where, before, while, if, until, once, so that, since, whether.

Run-on Sentences

A run-on sentence is one which actually contains two (or more) complete sentences without the proper punctuation to create separate sentences. There are two common forms of the run-on: (1) the “comma splice” in which a comma is inserted between two comp lete sentences where a period should actually be used; (2) a lack of punctuation where a semi-colon or period is needed.

Incorrect Examples – The Comma Splice

John is a musician, he plays the guitar for a living.

The girl walked home, she decided not to ride the bus.

He could only guess at the number of guests who attended the party, the entire yard was filled with people.

In each of the examples above, the two sentences are incorrectly joined by a comma, thus “splicing” two complete sentences together into one run-on sentence. To correct these run-on’s, the comma should be replaced by a period, thus creating two separate sentences, as shown below.

Correct Examples

John is a musician. He plays the guitar for a living.
The girl walked home. She decided not to ride the bus.
He could only guess at the number of guests who attended the party. The entire yard was filled with people.

Incorrect Examples – Lack of Punctuation

There is a problem with the television however no one is available to fix it.
Nobody knows what really happened the policeman said there was a fight.
That is the problem when people have conflict they attack each other personally.

In each of the examples above, some type of punctuation is needed to separate the two parts of the sentence: either a semi-colon or a period.

Correct Examples

There is a problem with the television; however, no one is available to fix it.
There is a problem with the television. However, no one is available to fix it.

Nobody knows what really happened; the policeman said there was a fight.
Nobody knows what really happened. The policeman said there was a fight.

That is the problem when people have conflict; they attack each other personally.
That is the problem when people have conflict. They attack each other personally.

Subject-Verb Agreement

In order for a sentence to be grammatically correct, the subject and verb must both be singular or plural. In other words, the subject and verb must agree with one another in their tense. If the subject is in plural form, the verb should also be in plur al form (and vice versa). To ensure subject-verb agreement, identify the main subject and verb in the sentence, then check to see if they are both plural or singular. Consider the examples below.

Incorrect examples – Subject-Verb Agreement

“The group of students are complaining about grades.”

The main subject in this sentence is “group,” which is singular. The main verb is “are complaining,” which is plural.

“A recipe with more than six ingredients are too complicated.”
The main subject in this sentence is “recipe,” which is singular. The main verb is “are,” which is plural.

“The facts in that complex case is questionable.”

The main subject in this sentence is “facts,” which is plural. The main verb, “is,” is singular.

“The people is wearing formal attire.”

The main subject in this sentence is “people,” which is plural. The main verb is “is wearing,” which is singular.

Correct examples

“The group of students is complaining about grades.”

“A recipe with more than six ingredients is too complicated.”

“The facts in that complex case are questionable.”

“The people are wearing formal attire.”

A variation of the subject-verb agreement is pronoun-reference agreement. In the case of pronoun-reference agreement, all of the pronouns should agree with one another in singular or plural tense. Consider the examples below.

Incorrect examples – Pronoun-Reference Agreement

“A manager should always be honest with their employees.”

The subject in this sentence, “manager,” is singular. The corresponding pronoun, “their,” is plural.

“Organizations must be careful about discriminating against its employees.”

The subject in this sentence is “organizations,” which is plural. The corresponding pronoun, “its,” is singular.

“If you really care about somebody, let them make their own choices.”
In this sentence, the pronoun “somebody” is singular, but the corresponding pronouns, “them” and “their” are plural.

Correct examples

“A manager should always be honest with his (or her) employees.”
“Organizations must be careful about discriminating against their employees.”
“If you really care about somebody, let him (or her) make his (or her) own choices.”

Parallel Structure

The parallel structure of a sentence refers to the extent to which different parts of the sentence match each other in form. When more than one phrase or description is used in a sentence, those phrases or descriptions should be consistent with one an other in their form and wording. Parallel structure is important because it enhances the ease with which the reader can follow the writer’s idea. Consider the following examples.

Incorrect examples – Parallel Structure

Example One: “He is strong and a tough competitor.”

Notice that “strong” and “a tough competitor” are not the in the same form. “Strong” and “competitive” are consistent in form.

Example Two: “The new coach is a smart strategist, an effective manager, and works hard.”

Notice that “a smart strategist” and “an effective manager” are consistent with one another, but not consistent with “works hard.”

Example Three: “In the last minute of the game, John intercepted the football, evaded the tacklers, and a touchdown was scored.”
Notice that the first two phrases in this sentence are consistent with one another: “intercepted the football” and “evaded the tacklers.” However, the final phrase, “and a touchdown was scored” is not consistent with the first two phrases. Correct examples

Example One: “He is strong and competitive.”

Example Two: “The new coach is a smart strategist, an effective manager, and a hard worker.”

Thursday, 19 January 2023

THE APPLICATION OF COMPUTER IN REAL ESTATE APPRAISAL

ABSTRACT

The use of computer as an electronic device have been embraced in all field of human endeavour ranging from banking, engineering marketing, construction with real estate appraisal inclusive. This paper is centered on the application of computer in real estate appraisal. The computer is increasingly used by real estate appraiser for various purposes. The word processing software permits the appraiser to write up the individual property appraisal report. The same or different software permits the appraisal the appraiser to fill in appraisal forms with the requirement information that is found in the appraiser’s files and acquired from other sources. Computer spreadsheet software allows the appraiser to calculate multiple regression coefficients of correlation after data from the appraisers’ files is entered into the software. Blocks of residential single family are inserted into the program to see what housing characteristics have the most effect on the resulting appraised value. Property tax appraisers with a mass appraisal to accomplished actively use computer multiple regression models. At least part of the appraiser’s wealth of information that comes from a daily inflow of data from various sources may be filed in the computer database. The computer has become a necessity rather than a luxury or an occasionally used piece of office equipment.

INTRODUCTION

The typical professional appraisal of a generation ago would be flabbergasted by the inroads made by electronic media in the modern appraisal office. Even in the past ten years, the manner in which appraisal data are accumulated and analyzed and the way that the appraiser’s estimate of value is transmitted to the client have undergone a transformation that is still ongoing. With the increasing availability and range of use of small, easily programmed office computer, the appraisers must be acquainted with a variety of appraisal-based computer applications. A few of these are highlighted below, with suggestions for the equipment necessary to keep pace with the developing electronic products.

THE COMPUTER: Even the smallest real estate or appraisal office can now take advantage of the computer’s storage and problem-solving capabilities. What kind of computer is best for the appraisal office? That depends on the nature of the appraisal work, the complexity of the assignments the appraisal will undertake, and the size of the appraiser’s budget.

It is best to tackle the question of what computer to buy by working backward; that is, the appraiser should begin by considering the requirements of the software that will be used in everyday practice. The appraiser may have already decided to buy one of the major appraisal software packages, which could cover everything from case tracking, including data collection and report preparation, to management of the appraisal office, including bill and staffing. Should the computer be “IBM-compatible” (One that meets the operating specifications designed for IBM, Inc., products, referred to as PCs, or personal computer). Macintosh computers are often favoured by design and publishing firms. There is excellent mac-based software available for the mot appraisal functions – for example, word processing, spreadsheets, databases, office management, communications, graphics, photo editing. Etc. There also are very sophisticated Mac programs for all the standard forms used for residential and general appraisaing; however, there are more choices of software vendors for the PC. The beginning appraiser should follow the recommendations of the managing appraiser who will be reviewing his or her work to ensure compatibility. Generally the new appraiser can be included under the managing appraisers’ current software license for a relatively small fee.

THE APPLICATION OF COMPUTER IN REAL ESTATE APPRAISAL

Most likely, the appraiser will need a modern, a computer – based telephone, to gain access to the wide range of information available on the internet. In addition, the appraiser may want to establish an electronic link to one or more lenders, which would require a computer with sufficient memory in addition to a modern capable of making such connections efficiently. Of course, the minimum capability required by today’s computer applications only establishes the baseline requirement for the appraisal office. The difficulty is in deciding how far beyong the minimum the appraiser should go.

Some state appraiser licensing offices, as well as the major appraiser societies, offer introductory classes or seminars in computer technology and application for the real estate appraisal. Because of the rapid development of more powerful computers, as well as new software to take advantage of the computer’s growing data-handling capabilities, attendance at one of these classes should be useful for the experienced computer users and the neophyte. The computer hardware and software purchase decisions needn’t be made in a vacuum.

By seeking experts advice, and dealing with one of the major computer manufacturers, even the beginner can take most of the trauma out of the purchase decision. With the right information, the computer buyer should be able to invest in a system that will be adequate for three years of services. That means that the system should not only meet the appraisers’ immediate needs but be expandable to cover reasonably expected additions of equipment and software.

The most important features of the computer purchase will not be apparent until after a problem arises. Who is responsible for fixing the computer when something goes wrong, and where will the repairs be made? IF the computer system is purchase with an intended period of use of three years, the most desirable warranty or services contract will be one that provides for three years of on-site maintenance, to be performed within a stated time of the request for service. Such a warranty may require an additional fee, but will help reduce a major source of stress for the computer owner. After all, when an appraiser is relying on a functioning computer system to produce and transmit appraisals, a non functioning machine means that the appraiser is virtually out of business.

What price can the appraiser expect to pay for a system capable of handling all, of the operations mentioned above? That depends on many things: the systems motherboard, the command system, which determines how fast the system can operate; RAM, or random access memory, which determines how many operations the system can perform at the same time; hard drive memory, or data storage capacity; a monitor of adequate size and image definition; and the specifications of the modem, DVD/CD drive, and other peripherals. The good news is that prices continue to fail. Expectations are that this year’s system will have much greater speed and capacity and yet cost less than last year’s system. A basic “office suite” of software applications, including word-processing, spreadsheet, graphics, and mailing List capability, is likely to be included in the price of the basic system. The cost of appraisal-based software applications will depend on the appraiser’s needs and on how much time the appraiser is willing to spend searching for the best price available.

THE PRINTER

Today’s appraisal software not only allows a user to complete any of the numerous standard appraisal forms, it provides the form itself. The key to making a professional presentation is the quality of the printer used to print out the completed term. Given the dramatic drop in prices of laser printer, there is no substitute for a laser printer capable of producing six or more black-and-white pages per minute, at a resolution of 600 by 600 dpi (dots per inch). The price for such a machine used to be around S1.000, but they are now available for:$500 and up. A useful second printer is a color ink-jet machine that can produce more attractive renderings of photographs. It has become possible to purchase one for well under $500.

THE BACKUP SYSTEM

As with any serious computer use, the appraiser should ensure that no data are lost in the event of a power failure or mechanical malfunction. The backup system properly consists of two components: (1) a battery (not just a power surge protector) to which the computer is connected to provide a secondary power supply – in essence, a cushion of time during which the computer can be shut down in the event of a power failure without loss of data and (2) a second computer memory (hard drive or cartridge), installed inside or outside the machine, that can b used (and refreshed periodically) to keep a copy of everything that is stored on the computer. It should be possible to buy both components for a combined, price of less than N75,000. Note: The backup system disk or cartridge should not be left in the machine or it will suffer the same fate as the main system in the event of power toss or malfunction. A final word of warning: During an electrical storm, it may be prudent to shut down one’s computer completely to avoid risk of data Loss. There is no backup system yet invented that will survive a direct hit, or even a near- miss, from a bolt of lightning.

THE INTERNET

From its beginnings 40 years ago as a telephone-based method of computer information exchange for the military, what we now term the Internet has emerged as a major method of wor1dwde communication.

Efficient access to the resources available via the Internet requires a modern capable of transmitting 28,800 bps (bits per second) or better and subscription with a service provider that provides the initial access link. Once one is online (has gained access to the Internet), one can reach government, educational, and private sources of information around the globe. One can also be a recipient of communications in the form of electronic mail, referred to as e-mail.

Current predictions are that use of the Internet will only increase in coming years. Its use for appraisers is growing exponentially every year, as more and more data sources, including multiple listing services, provide online access to their databases. The number of government offices allowing access to public records is also growing. Information on national, regional, and local economic, employment, and other trends is readily available. There are a growing number of services specializing in data on various types of commercial and residential properties.

The cost of access to the Internet is surprisingly modest. Some Internet providers (such as America Online) provide their subscribers with access to numerous newspapers, magazines chat availability shopping, and other services at a base monthly rate for a specified number of hours of access to the service, with an hourly rate for each additional hour. Unlimited Service is available for a higher monthly fee, Other service providers provide access to the Internet, but no additional programming.

Geographic Information Systems (GIS)

Satellite based mapping systems have been in use for as long as satellites have orbited the earth. From their initial military and weather technology based applications, mapping systems based on Latitude and longitude are now entering the commercial market place. The utility of the maps. Once available online from the United States Geological Survey (USGS), has been greatly expanded. Commercial services now provide (via computer disk or the Internet) reference maps that provide overlays of national, regional, and local data and are capable of incorporating the appraiser’s own data The cost of such maps will depend on the source and method of transmission.

Electronic data interchange (EDI).

The present trend toward consolidation of financial institutions has resulted in fewer users of appraisal services, particularly in the single-family residential mortgage loan marketplace. The lenders that now dominate the field arc moving increasingly toward the most direct method of communication of property valuation – electronic data interchange, or EDI. An electronic link between the lender and the appraiser via modem allows a computer in the appraiser’s office to transmit the required information almost instantaneously. Using EDI, the appraiser no longer needs to print hard copies of the report that includes the basis for the estimate of value. Now the appraiser enters the necessary information into the computer and then uses the computer’s modem to connect to the lender’s computer and relay all of the required information with the speed of a telephone call. The computer software that allows for such efficient transmittals must be customized to meet the lender’s requirement, but the lender may provide the software at little or no cost to the appraiser.

THE CAMERA

No modern appraisal office is complete without a digital camera that can be used to make and transmit images without the need for film or printed copy. The digital camera may be no larger than the typical 35-milimeter camera used in the past. It will have a view finder, lens, and built-in flash. Within the camera body, however, is a miniature version of a computer, capable of receiving images, recording them in digitized (computer-readable) format on a memory chip, and. releasing them to a printer and / or another memory device, such as a computer hard drive or disk. Once the images have been downloaded – that is, recorded and/or stored elsewhere – they can be erased from the camera’s memory which can then be used to record new images.

The digital camera uses no film and requires no professional processing. The number of images the camera is capable of recording and storing depend:; on the size (the amount of memory) of the chip inside. With a digital camera, the appraiser can import photographic-quality images directly to an appraisal report. If the report itself is transmitted electronically, the photos are incorporated within the report, to be viewed on the recipient’s computer monitor.

A digital camera with enough memory for hundreds of images (depending on the degree of resolution desired, with higher-resolution photos requiring more memory per image).

USE OF TECHNOLOGY:

In recent years there have been many references to use of “artificial intelligence’ in the appraisal process. The use of appropriate resources, including computers, can help an appraiser function more efficiently and more accurately, but these tools serve only as aids to the appraiser. There never will be a substitute for the skilled and informed judgement of a professional appraiser.

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

The skills required of the professional appraiser touch on most areas of real estate practice. The best-qualified appraiser will have some at the abilities of the economist, city planner, surveyor, local estate developer, builder, and broker. Familiarity with appraisal-based computer applications is rapidly becoming a practical necessity however impartiality objectivity, knowledge of appraising fundamentals, and the quality of judgment that comes only with experience are the professional appraiser’s chief credentials.

The application of computer in real estate appraisal have contributed immensely to the efficiency and productivity of real estate appraiser and the estate survey and valuation profession. Therefore it pertinent for all valuers and estate firm to have access to this modern tools “Computer” and harness its enormous benefits so as to increase professionalism and productivity.

REFERENCES

Adair, Alastair, Mary Lou Downi (1996) European Valuation Practice. Theory and Technique. London. E & FN Spon, publisher.

Baum etal (1995) Property Investment Appraisal. 2^nd edition, London: Routledge publishers.

Tuesday, 17 January 2023

THE EFFECT OF POOR TRAINING ON THE EMPLOYEES PERFORMANCE

THE EFFECT OF POOR TRAINING ON THE EMPLOYEES PERFORMANCE

According to Tima Amo (2006), employee who have not received adequate training before assigned responsibility usually lack adequate knowledge and skill to provide satisfactory customer service. This combination result to dissatisfied customers. The company will experience declining sales of dissatisfied customers choosing competitors who can provide quality product and appropriate service (i.e loss of customers).

Betts (1983), said if training as an important stage does not receive sufficient attention from supervisors, managers and the possibility of using individual full capacity become very remote. By implication, Betts is simply poor training will hinder the donation of employee full capacity towards work.

Poor training makes an individual to be unproductive. And” many organization especially those developing rapidly, just cannot afford to devote so much on their resources to pay the salaries of unproductive employees” Foluke (2007) an employee who is not adequately trained would therefore, have his job at risk (i.e no job security). Poor training can bring about many mistakes and great job dissatisfaction. Martins and Jackson cited in Foluke(2007) said “training help the organization to cope with organization social technological change whether, it is focused on orientation on the job, development of potential or retraining of employees” in essence, if an employee training is adequate and not poor, such employee will have fewer mistakes and greater job satisfaction. According to Obekpa (2004) the effect of poor training include the following:

Poor Communication Skills: – A secretary is expected to have good communication skills without this, she will be unable to tolerate well with her boss, colleagues and customers. Inability to communicate well with those she comes in contact with makes the job difficult and tiring.
Ineffective Handling of Office Equipment: – The employee is expected to have the knowledge of handling office equipment, such as telephone and other equipment relating to her job. This will enable her perform her task efficiently and effectively.
Poor Organization and Inability to Delegate Duties: – An employee inadequate trained will find it difficult to plan the day’s work and also find it difficult to keep abreast with her functions, thus finding it difficult to organize herself and her boss appointment and also unable to delegate duties.
Poor Imaginative Skills: – An employee should be proactive with a lot of imaginative skill. He/she should be able to point a good picture in his or her mind on the best way to handle a task.
Inability to Manage Limited Resources: – An employee should be able to manage resources available to her. But an inadequate trained employee will find it difficult to manage limited resources available to her because of errors and mistakes that occur in the cause of her work.

Wednesday, 4 January 2023

PROTEIN ELECTROPHORESIS

PROTEIN ELECTROPHORESIS

INTRODUCTION

Serum protein electrophoresis is a laboratory examination that commonly is used to identify patients with multiple myeloma and other disorders of serum protein. Many subspecialists include serum protein electrophoresis screening in the initial evaluation for numerous clinical conditions. Sometimes, however, the results of this examination can be confusing or difficult to interpret (Jenkins, 2019). This seminar paper discussed protein electrophoresis in details which covers the definition, Acetate or gel electrophoresis, Capillary electrophoresis, Components of Serum Protein Electrophoresis, Indications, Interpretation of Results, Monoclonal Versus Polyclonal Gammopathies and Evaluation of an Abnormal Serum Protein Electrophoresis

THE CONCEPT OF PROTEIN ELECTROPHORESIS

Serum protein electrophoresis (SPEP or SPE) is a laboratory test that examines specific proteins in the blood called globulins(Jenkins, 2019).The most common indications for a serum protein electrophoresis test are to diagnose or monitor multiple myeloma, a monoclonal gammopathy of uncertain significance (MGUS), or further investigate a discrepancy between a low albumin and a relatively high total protein.

Unexplained bone pain, anemia, proteinuria, chronic kidney disease, and hypercalcemia are also signs of multiple myeloma, and indications for SPE. Blood must first be collected, usually into an airtight vial or syringe. Electrophoresis is a laboratory technique in which the blood serum (the fluid portion of the blood after the blood has clotted) is applied to either an acetate membrane soaked in a liquid buffer, or to a buffered agarosegel matrix, or into liquid in a capillary tube, and exposed to an electric current to separate the serum protein components into five major fractions by size and electrical charge: serum albumin, alpha-1 globulins, alpha-2 globulins, beta 1 and 2 globulins, and gamma globulins(Jenkins, 2019).

Electrophoresis is a method of separating proteins based on their physical properties. Serum is placed on a specific medium, and a charge is applied. The net charge (positive or negative) and the size and shape of the protein commonly are used in differentiating various serum proteins.

Several subsets of serum protein electrophoresis are available. The names of these subsets are based on the method that is used to separate and differentiate the various serum components. In zone electrophoresis, for example, different protein subtypes are placed in separate physical locations on a gel made from agar, cellulose, or other plant material.The proteins are stained, and their densities are calculated electronically to provide graphical data on the absolute and relative amounts of the various proteins. Further separation of protein subtypes is achieved by staining with an immunologically active agent, which results in immunofluorescence and immunofixation (Harris et al., 2012)

ACETATE OR GEL ELECTROPHORESIS

Proteins are separated by both electrical forces and electroendoosmostic forces. The net charge on a protein is based on the sum charge of its amino acids, and the pH of the buffer. Proteins are applied to a solid matrix such as an agarose gel, or a cellulose acetate membrane in a liquid buffer, and electric current is applied. Proteins with a negative charge will migrate towards the positively charged anode. Albumin has the most negative charge, and will migrate furthest towards the anode. Endoosmotic flow is the movement of liquid towards the cathode, which causes proteins with a weaker charge to move backwards from the application site. Gamma proteins are primarily separated by endoosmotic forces (Kaplan and Savor, 2015)

CAPILLARY ELECTROPHORESIS

In capillary electrophoresis, there is no solid matrix. Proteins are separated primarily by strong electroendosmotic forces. The sample is injected into a capillary with a negative surface charge. A high current is applied, and negatively charged proteins such as albumin try to move towards the anode. Liquid buffer flows towards the cathode, and drags proteins with a weaker charge

COMPONENTS OF SERUM PROTEIN ELECTROPHORESIS

The pattern of serum protein electrophoresis results depends on the fractions of two major types of protein: albumin and globulins. Albumin, the major protein component of serum, is produced by the liver under normal physiologic conditions. Globulins comprise a much smaller fraction of the total serum protein content. The subsets of these proteins and their relative quantity are the primary focus of the interpretation of serum protein electrophoresis (Keren, 2013).

Albumin, the largest peak, lies closest to the positive electrode. The next five components (globulins) are labeled alpha₁, alpha₂, beta₁, beta₂, and gamma. The peaks for these components lie toward the negative electrode, with the gamma peak being closest to that electrode. Figure 1shows a typical normal pattern for the distribution of proteins as determined by serum protein electrophoresis.

a. ALBUMIN

The albumin band represents the largest protein component of human serum. The albumin level is decreased under circumstances in which there is less production of the protein by the liver or in which there is increased loss or degradation of this protein. Malnutrition, significant liver disease, renal loss (e.g., in nephrotic syndrome), hormone therapy, and pregnancy may account for a low albumin level. Burns also may result in a low albumin level. Levels of albumin are increased in patients with a relative reduction in serum water (e.g., dehydration).

b. ALPHA FRACTION

Moving toward the negative portion of the gel (i.e., the negative electrode), the next peaks involve the alpha₁ and alpha₂ components. The alpha₁-protein fraction is comprised of alpha₁-antitrypsin, thyroid-binding globulin, and transcortin. Malignancy and acute inflammation (resulting from acute-phase reactants) can increase the alpha₁-protein band. A decreased alpha₁-protein band may occur because of alpha₁-antitrypsin deficiency or decreased production of the globulin as a result of liver disease. Ceruloplasmin, alpha₂-macroglobulin, and haptoglobin contribute to the alpha₂-protein band. The alpha₂ component is increased as an acute-phase reactant.

c. BETA FRACTION

The beta fraction has two peaks labeled beta₁ and beta₂. Beta₁ is composed mostly of transferrin, and beta₂ contains beta-lipoprotein. IgA, IgM, and sometimes IgG, along with complement proteins, also can be identified in the beta fraction.

d. GAMMA FRACTION

Much of the clinical interest is focused on the gamma region of the serum protein spectrum because immunoglobulins migrate to this region. It should be noted that immunoglobulins often can be found throughout the electrophoretic spectrum. C-reactive protein (CRP) is located in the area between the beta and gamma components.(Keren, 2013).

INDICATIONS

Serum protein electrophoresis commonly is performed when multiple myeloma is suspected. The examination also should be considered in other “red flag” situations.

If the examination is normal but multiple myeloma, Waldenström’smacroglobulinemia, primary amyloidosis, or a related disorder still is suspected, immunofixation also should be performed because this technique may be more sensitive in identifying a small monoclonal (M) protein (Keren, 2013).

Interpretation of Results

Plasma protein levels display reasonably predictable changes in response to acute inflammation, malignancy, trauma, necrosis, infarction, burns, and chemical injury. This so-called “acute-reaction protein pattern” involves increases in fibrinogen, alpha₁-antitrypsin, haptoglobin, ceruloplasmin, CRP, the C3 portion of complement, and alpha₁ acid glycoprotein. Often, there are associated decreases in the albumin and transferrin levels.Table below lists characteristic patterns of acute-reaction proteins found on serum protein electrophoresis, along with associated conditions or disorders.

Saturday, 31 December 2022

WATER AND FAT SOLUBLE VITAMINS

DEFINE WATER SOLUBLE VITAMINS

Water-soluble vitamins are those that are dissolved in water and readily absorbed into tissues for immediate use. Because they are not stored in the body, they need to be replenished regularly in our diet. The water-soluble vitamins include ascorbic acid (vitamin C), thiamin, riboflavin, niacin, vitamin B₆ (pyridoxine, pyridoxal, and pyridoxamine), folacin, vitamin B₁₂, biotin, and pantothenic acid.

Explain the general functions of water soluble vitamin

The followings are the functions of water soluble vitamins:

Vitamin B1 (Thiamine) – Part of an enzyme needed for energy metabolism; important to nerve function
Vitamin B2 (Riboflavin) – Part of an enzyme needed for energy metabolism; important for normal vision and skin health.
Vitamin B3 (Niacin) – Part of an enzyme needed for energy metabolism; important for nervous system, digestive system, and skin health
Pantothenic acid – Part of an enzyme needed for energy metabolism
Biotin – Part of an enzyme needed for energy metabolism
Vitamin B6 (Pyridoxine) – Part of an enzyme needed for protein metabolism; helps make red blood cells
Folic acid – Part of an enzyme needed for making DNA and new cells, especially red blood cells
Cobalamin (vitamin B12) – Part of an enzyme needed for making new cells; important to nerve function
Ascorbic acid (vitamin C) – Antioxidant; part of an enzyme needed for protein metabolism; important for immune system health; aids in iron absorption

LIST THE DEFICIENCY DISEASE OF VITAMINS

Vitamin deficiency is the condition of a long-term lack of a vitamin. When caused by not enough vitamin intake it is classified as a primary deficiency, whereas when due to an underlying disorder such as malabsorption it is called a secondary deficiency. An underlying disorder may be metabolic – as in a genetic defect for converting tryptophan to niacin – or from lifestyle choices that increase vitamin needs, such as smoking or drinking alcohol.

DEFICIENCY OF WATER-SOLUBLE VITAMINS

Vitamin	Symptoms & Diagnosis
Thiamine (Vitamin B₁) deficiency	Weight loss, emotional disturbances, impaired sensory perception, weakness and pain in the limbs, and periods of irregular heartbeat. Deficiency is assessed by red blood cell status and urinary output.
Riboflavin (Vitamin B₂) deficiency	Deficiency causes painful red tongue with sore throat, chapped and cracked lips, and inflammation at the corners of the mouth (angular cheilitis). Eyes can be itchy, watery, bloodshot and sensitive to light. Riboflavin deficiency also causes anemia with red blood cells that are normal in size and hemoglobin content, but reduced in number.
Niacin (Vitamin B₃) deficiency	Deficiency causes pellagra, a reversible nutritional wasting disease characterized by four classic symptoms often referred to as the four Ds: diarrhea, dermatitis, dementia, and death. The signs and symptoms of niacin deficiency start to revert within days of oral supplementation with large amounts of the vitamin.
Pantothenic acid (Vitamin B₅) deficiency	Irritability, fatigue, and apathy.
Vitamin B₆ deficiency	microcytic anemia, electroencephalographic abnormalities, dermatitis, seborrhoeic dermatitis-like eruption, atrophic glossitis with ulceration, angular cheilitis, conjunctivitis, and intertrigo. Neurologic symptoms of depression, somnolence, confusion, and neuropathy (due to impaired sphingosine synthesis) and microcytic anemia
Biotin (Vitamin B₇) deficiency	Rashes including red, patchy ones near the mouth and fine, brittle hair. Hallucinations, Lethargy, Mild depression, which may progress to profound fatigue and, eventually, to somnolence, Generalized muscular pains (myalgia) and Paresthesias. Decreased urinary excretion of biotin and increased urinary excretion of 3-hydroxyisovaleric acid are better indicators of biotin deficiency than concentration in the blood.
Folate (Vitamin B₉) deficiency	Loss of appetite and weight loss can occur. Additional signs are weakness, sore tongue, headaches, heart palpitations, irritability, and behavioral disorders. In adults, anemia (macrocytic, megaloblastic anemia) can be a sign of advanced folate deficiency.
Vitamin B₁₂ deficiency	Anemia (reduction of red blood cells), and the presence of limb neuropathy and digestive disorders.A wide range of associated symptoms may include angular cheilitis, mouth ulcers, bleeding gums, hair loss and thinning, premature greying, a look of exhaustion and dark circles around the eyes, as well as brittle nails.
Vitamin C deficiency	Deficiency leads to weakness, weight loss and general aches and pains. Longer-term depletion affects connective tissues, severe gum disease, and bleeding from the skin.

FAT-SOLUBLE VITAMINS

Fat-soluble vitamins are dissolved in fats. They are absorbed by fat globules that travel through the small intestines and distributed through the body in the bloodstream. Fat-soluble vitamins are not readily excreted, they can accumulate to toxic levels if taken in excess. Where a well-balanced diet can’t cause toxicity, overdosing on fat-soluble vitamin supplements can.

FUNCTIONS OF FAT SOLUBLE VITAMINS

Fat-soluble vitamins play integral roles in a multitude of physiological processes such as vision, bone health, immune function, and coagulation. This review discusses the biochemistry, transport, and roles of these vitamins highlighting deficiency syndromes and potential toxicities.

DEFICIENCY OF FAT SOLUBLE VITAMINS

Vitamin	Symptoms & Diagnosis
Vitamin A deficiency	Can cause nyctalopia (night blindness) and keratomalacia, the latter leading to permanent blindness if not treated..
Vitamin D deficiency	Usually asymptomatic, causes reduce bone density associated with the development of schizophrenia.
Vitamin E deficiency	Causes poor conduction of electrical impulses along nerves due to changes in nerve membrane structure and function.
Vitamin K deficiency	Signs and symptoms can include sensitivity to bruising, bleeding gums, nosebleeds, and heavy menstrual bleeding in women

REFERENCES

Gilbert C. What is vitamin A and why do we need it? Community Eye Health. 2013;26(84):65. [PMC free article] [PubMed]

Shahidi F, de Camargo AC. Tocopherols and Tocotrienols in Common and Emerging Dietary Sources: Occurrence, Applications, and Health Benefits. Int J Mol Sci. 2016 Oct 20;17(10) [PMC free article] [PubMed]

Booth SL. Vitamin K: food composition and dietary intakes. Food Nutr Res. 2012;56 [PMC free article] [PubMed]

Russell McDowell (2000). Vitamins in Animal and Human Nutrition (2 ed.). Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-0-8138-2630-1.

“Dietary Reference Intakes (DRIs): Tolerable Upper Intake Levels, Vitamins”(PDF). Food and Nutrition Board, Institute of Medicine, US National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2011. Retrieved 15 February 2019.

“Vitamin B12 Deficiency: Causes, Symptoms, and Treatment”. 28 July 2021. Archived from the original on 28 July 2021. Retrieved 13 September 2021.

Wednesday, 28 December 2022

SUSTENANCE AND MAINTENANCE BUSINESS GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

QUESTION

As a business man for about 7 years experience, invalidating, planning and implementation to see the light of your business success, but still suffering from certain constraints, explain way and manners in which you can sustain and maintain business growth and development

INTRODUCTION

Businesses organization of any type and size look for ways to expand their market share and increase revenues. Organization often choose to implement specific growth strategies to overcome several challenges faced and advance their business. Business growth and development is a phenomenon that occurs when business owners, employees and outside factors influence the success of a company. A business grows when it expands a customer base, increases revenue or produces more product.

Growth and development is the goal of most businesses and is the reason behind many decisions that affect the daily workings of a company both internally and externally. Business growth is impacted by consumer trends, market opportunities and decisions made by company leadership.

Growth and development of a business organization takes planning and concentrated efforts that fall into these main categories: Organic growth which happens when a business creates the right conditions for expansion. This includes physically expanding office space to allow for company growth or increasing product offerings;A strategic approach which focuses on long-term growth through specific initiatives. Businesses often move into this growth stage after a period of organic growth. Companies may try to gain a share in untapped markets or plan to produce new inventory; Partnership/merger is growth and development strategy which occurs when a company joins with another business to create more market opportunities and finally an internal growth strategy that works to maximize internal processes to increase business and revenue.

WAY AND MANNERS THAT CAN SUSTAIN AND MAINTAIN BUSINESS GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

For business organization to surmount their challenges, the need to focus on planning. A business plan is a written document of research proposing business activities before a business owner begins developing a product. Planning should begin with the development of a forecast for profits, income, and cash flow for five years.

Chaudhry et al. defined strategic planning as the process of awareness on business environment, documentation about the future course of action, and awareness of short and long-term implications of strategies.

Therefore, business organization need to face the challenge of developing strategies which will add value for sustainable growth and development. Thus, strategic planning is a process aimed at documenting strategies which may result in a positive performance of the business.

There for the business organization to be sustained and maintain business growth and development the following must be put into consideration

Market penetration: Market penetration occurs when a business tries to generate further growth within their current market. To do this they may try to lower prices or increase marketing efforts to gain more market share. Increasing brand awareness can be an effective way to implement this strategy.
Product development: Businesses may choose a growth strategy that involves innovating current products or creating new ones to increase revenue. Some companies choose to take existing inventory and add new features to attract more customers. Investing in the design and creation of new products is one way businesses foster growth.
Market expansion: In the market expansion method, a business tries to expand in their current market by reaching untapped customer bases. For example, an office supply company may try to gain market share by selling to educational institutions, healthcare organizations and government agencies instead of strictly selling to corporate office clients.
Vertical integration: Companies who decide to growth through vertical integration strategies take on another part of the manufacturing or distribution process. This may mean that a company begins to produce their own packaging materials or buys a factory that produces a key item for a product.
Productivity and efficiency: Some businesses grow by changing their processes to increase productivity. Efficient production methods can help cut costs and increase revenue. A business may choose to conduct an audit of their manufacturing processes, distribution methods and other parts of their production chain.
New geographies: Investing marketing efforts into expansion in other locations can also be a growth strategy for businesses. This can mean regional, national or even worldwide expansion of product offerings and distribution. Offering products outside of a current geographical area can generate new revenue streams if distribution is also handled effectively.
Share of wallet: By focusing on customer retention and quality service, companies can initiate growth by expanding sales to current customers. Selling to existing customers typically costs less than other marketing efforts. This strategy can be effective for companies with excellent customer service practices and a loyal customer base.
Diversification: Companies that choose to grow through diversification create new products for a completely new market. This kind of growth may mean moving into international markets or areas where the company has no prior sales history. Some companies do this by looking for areas of large-scale expansion, hoping to gain market share. Diversified companies may own a stake in multiple industries through a range of product offerings.
Acquisitions: Companies may implement a growth strategy by buying another business. A company might buy out a competitor to absorb their market share and acquire their assets. The parent company will then experience growth in sales and revenue. This strategy encourages more immediate growth because a business is essentially buying into a market instead of having to invest time in organic growth methods.
New channels: Offering products through new distribution channels is another way for businesses to expand. For example, a company may decide to offer product in retail stores after operating exclusively online. A company may also decide to work with consumers instead of selling just business to business.
New business models: Changing the way you do business can affect growth patterns in a company. When a business decides to make operational changes, they have the chance to create more growth opportunities using other strategies.
Investment: Owning shares and investing in other companies may be a way to expand business growth. When a company uses their revenue to increase the assets of another business, they have the opportunity to receive benefits as a stakeholder. This may include dividends, stock options or other investment earnings.
Market segmentation: By focusing on a small segment of industry and growing specifically in that area, businesses often find growth opportunities. Small businesses can benefit from this strategy in markets where big businesses already dominate a large portion of the market share.
Business partnerships: Strategic partnerships can increase business growth by leveraging the key elements of two or more brands. In this strategy, businesses often create a contract with clear terms outlining the agreement for both parties. Companies from different industries or markets benefit from gaining the attention of another consumer group.

CONCLUSION

Business intelligence including the technologies, processes, and applications needed to provide complete data to enable productive decisions by managers is one area explored by business organization to overcome the challenges of sustaining growth and development. Thus is believed that adopted the strategies outline above the any business organization can sustain growth and development.

REFERENCES

Crals, E., and Vereeck, L. (2004). Sustainable Entrepreneurship in SMEs. Theory and Practice. Research Gate Journals. Retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net
Erhum, M.O. (2015). A Sustainable Approach to Economic Development in Nigeria. A Legal Perspective. Journal of Economic and Sustainable Development 6(14); 1-6.
Okpara, J. O. (2011). Factors constraining the growth and survival of SME in Nigeria: Implications for poverty alleviation. Management Research Review, 34, 156-171. doi:10.1108/01409171111102786

Sunday, 27 November 2022

PHYLUM ECHINODERMATA

PHYLUM ECHINODERMATA

Echinodermata is a phylum of about 7000 living species distributed among five classes. It is any member of the phylum Echinodermata which comes from the Ancient Greek ‘hedgehog’, and ‘skin’ of marine animals. Echinoderms are found on the sea bed at every ocean depth, from the intertidal zone to the abyssal zone. The phylum Echinodermata is the second-largest grouping of deuterostomes (a superphylum), after the chordates (which include the vertebrates, such as birds, fishes, mammals, and reptiles). Echinoderms are the largest phylum that has no freshwater or terrestrial members. The echinoderms are important both ecologically and geologically.

Echinoderms are important both ecologically and geologically. Ecologically, there are few other groupings so abundant in the biotic desert of the deep sea, as well as shallower oceans. Most echinoderms are able to reproduce asexually and regenerate tissue, organs, and limbs; in some cases, they can undergo complete regeneration from a single limb. Geologically, the value of echinoderms is in their ossified skeletons, which are major contributors to many limestone formations, and can provide valuable clues as to the geological environment. An interesting feature of the phylum Echinodermata is that all the organisms belonging to this phylum are marine.Till date, there have been no traces of any terrestrial or freshwater Echinoderms.These are multicellular organisms with well-developed organ systems. All the animals belonging to this phylum share the same characteristics features. They are colourful organisms with unique shapes.

The Echinoderms are found in sea-depths as well as in the intertidal zones. An interesting feature of the phylum Echinodermata is that all the organisms belonging to this phylum are marine. None of the organisms is freshwater or marine.The water vascular system present in echinoderms accounts for gaseous exchange, circulation of nutrients and waste elimination.

Echinoderms primarily use their tube feet to move about, though some sea urchins also use their spines. The tube feet typically have a tip shaped like a suction pad in which a vacuum can be created by contraction of muscles. This along with some stickiness provided by the secretion of mucus provides adhesion. Waves of tube feet contractions and relaxations move along the adherent surface and the animal moves slowly along.

The development of an echinoderm begins with a bilaterally symmetrical embryo, with a coeloblastula developing first. Gastrulation marks the opening of the “second mouth” that places echinoderms within the deuterostomes, and the mesoderm, which will host the skeleton, migrates inwards. The secondary body cavity, the coelom, forms by the partitioning of three body cavities. The larvae are mostly planktonic but in some species the eggs are retained inside the female and in some the female broods the larvae.

Echinoderms are globally distributed in almost all depths, latitudes and environments in the ocean. They reach highest diversity in reef environments but are also widespread on shallow shores, around the poles – refugia where crinoids are at their most abundant – and throughout the deep ocean, where bottom-dwelling and burrowing sea cucumbers are common – sometimes accounting for up to 90% of organisms. While almost all echinoderms are benthic – that is, they live on the sea floor – some sea-lilies can swim at great velocity for brief periods of time, and a few deep-sea sea cucumbers are fully floating.

CLASSIFICATION OF PHYLUM ECHINODERMATA

The phylum echinoderms is divided into five extant classes: Asteroidea (sea stars), Ophiuroidea (brittle stars), Echinoidea (sea urchins and sand dollars), Crinoidea (sea lilies or feather stars), and Holothuroidea (sea cucumbers).

CHARACTERISTICS OF PHYLUM ECHINODERMATA

They have a star-like appearance and are spherical or elongated.
They are exclusively marine animals.
The organisms are spiny-skinned.
They exhibit organ system level of organization. Most members have a circulatory system as well as a digestive system.
They are triploblastic and have a coelomic cavity.
The skeleton is made up of calcium carbonate.
They have an open circulatory system.
They respire through gills or cloacal respiratory tree.
They have a simple radial nervous system and the excretory system are absent.
The body is unsegmented with no distinct head. The mouth is present on the ventral side while the anus is on the dorsal side.

Economic importance of preservation

Microorganism are economically important as these microorganisms are used by humans for many purposes. The beneficial uses of microorganism include the production of traditional foods such as fudge, yogurt, cheese, and vinegar. Microbes are also important in agriculture for the compost and fertilizer production.

Preservation has a positive economic impact on the communities that envision the potential benefits of thoughtful planning.

Preservation of open space, trails, parks and greenways creates jobs, enhances property values, expands local businesses, attracts new or relocating businesses, increases local tax revenues, decreases local government expenditures through the natural provision of ecosystem services, decreases the cost of recreation and promotes a sense of local community.

The following are economic importance of preserving microorganism:

Food processing: Sourdough bread is made to rise by fermentation, with a leaven that consists of microorganism, often combined with wild yeast enzymes.^[1] The milk-souring microorganisml genus Lactobacillus is used to make yogurt and cheese. Microorganism are also used to form organic acids in pickles and vinegar.
Biotechnology: Biotechnology involves the use of microorganisms including microorganism in the manufacturing and services industries. These include chemical manufacturing such as ethanol, acetone, organic acid, enzymes, and perfumes. Microorganism are important in the production of many dietary supplements and pharmaceuticals. For example, Escherichia coli is used for commercial preparation of riboflavin and vitamin K.^[3] E. coli is also used to produce D-amino acids such as D-p-hydroxyphenylglycine, an important intermediate for synthesis of the antibiotic amoxicillin.
Genetic engineering: Genetic engineering is the manipulation of gene. It is also called recombinant DNA technology. In genetic engineering, pieces of DNA (genes) are introduced into a host by a variety of techniques, one of the earliest being the use of a virus vector. The foreign DNA becomes a permanent feature of the host, and is replicated and passed on to daughter cells along with the rest of its DNA.^[5] Microorganisml cells are transformed and used in production of commercially important products. Examples include production of human insulin (used to treat diabetes)^[6] and human growth hormone (somatotrophin used to treat pituitary dwarfism).
Pest control: Microorganism can also be used in the place of pesticides in biological pest control. This commonly uses Bacillus thuringiensis (BT), a Gram-positive, soil-dwelling bacterium. This bacterium is used as a Lepidopteran-specific insecticide under trade names such as Dipel and Thuricide. Because of their specificity, these pesticides are regarded as environmentally friendly, with little effect on humans, wildlife, pollinators, or other beneficial insects.
Tanning Of Leather: Microorganism helps purify animal hides to make them easy, clean, and fit to use.

6. Medicines: Microorganism are used to create multiple antibiotics such as Streptomycin from the microorganism streptococcus. Microorganism can also be used to create vaccines to prevent several diseases.

REFERENCES

Gadsby, P; Weeks, E. “The Biology of… Sourdough”. Discover. Discover Magazine. Retrieved September 16, 2019.
McGee, H (2004). On Food and Cooking: The Science and Lore of the Kitchen. New York: Scribner, pp. 291–296. ISBN 0-684-80001-2.
Healthwise, Incorporated (2010-06-28). “Throat Culture”. WebMD. Archived from the original on 2013-03-17. Retrieved 2013-03-10.
Old, D.C.; Duguid, J.P. (1970). “Selective Outgrowth of Fimbriate Bacteria in Static Liquid Medium”. Journal of Bacteriology. American Madigan, Michael T. (2012). Brock biology of microorganisms (13th ed.). San Francisco: Benjamin Cummings. ISBN 9780321649638.
Stöhr, Sabine (2014). “Echinodermata”. WoRMS. World Register of Marine Species. Retrieved 23 February 2014.Richard Fox. “Asterias forbesi”. Invertebrate Anatomy OnLine. Lander University. Retrieved 19 May 2012.

Preservation Of Organism And List The Common Method Of Preservation Of Vertebrates And Invertebrate

Preservation is the act, process, or result of preserving something: such as a the activity or process of keeping something valued alive, intact, or free from damage or decay.

Microorganisms require special preservation methods in order to ensure optimal long-term viability and genetic stability. The preservation methods used in the collections may differ.

Storage in liquid nitrogen is one of the best methods for preserving all microorganisms. For some viruses, it may be better to freeze the sample rapidly, but slow freezing with a cryoprotective agent is desirable for all other organisms to retain maximum viability or infectivity.

Preservation of micro-organisms by desiccation has been the preferred method for long term storage of cultures for decades. There are extensive culture collections that depend on these drying methods to preserve a huge diversity of cells for future propagation. In addition to culture collections, food and pharmaceutical industries have found drying technologies to be the preferred methods for preserving a multitude of different food and drug preparations in bulk quantities. Even with this worldwide usage of drying technologies, it would appear that there are still many varied methods of desiccating micro-organisms and that there is no generic drying method for all applications

Methods of preservation of vertebrates and invertebrates

The following points highlight the top six methods that are used for preservation of organisms. The methods are:

Agar Slant Culture
Agar Slant Culture Covered with Oil
Saline Suspension
Preservation at Very Low Temperature
Preservation by Drying in Vacuum
Lyophilization or Freeze Drying.
Agar Slant Culture: Agar slants are prepared in vitro. After inoculation slants are incubated for a period of 24h and then stored in a refrigerator. These cultures require periodic transfer after six months.
Agar Slant Culture Covered with Oil: The agar slants are incubated after inoculation until profuse growth appears. These are then covered with sterile mineral oil to a depth of 1 cm above the tip of the slanted surface. Transfers are made by removing a loopful of growth; touching the loop to the glass surface to drain off excess oil in the medium and then preserving the initial block culture.
Saline Suspension: High concentration of sodium chloride is used as inhibitor of microorganisml growth. Microorganism are suspended in 1 % salt solution in screw cap tubes to prevent evaporation. The tubes are stored at room temperature and transfers are made on agar slants.
Preservation at Very Low Temperature: The organisms are suspended in a nutrient broth containing 15% glycerol, or in skimmed milk containing 7.5% glucose. The suspensions are frozen and stored at -15°C to -30°C. The ready availability of liquid nitrogen (-196°C) has provided another means of preservation of stock cultures. In this procedure, the cultures are frozen with a protective agent (glycerol or dimethyl sulfoxide) in sealed ampules. The frozen cultures are kept in liquid nitrogen flask.
Preservation by Drying in Vacuum: The organisms are dried over CaCl₂ in a vacuum, then stored in the refrigerator. The organism survives longer than when air dried.
Lyophilization or Freeze Drying: The microbial suspension is placed in small vials. A thin film is frozen over the inside surface of the vial by rotating it in a mixture of dry ice or alcohol or acetone at a temperature of -78°C. The vials are connected to a high vacuum line. This dries the organism while still frozen. Finally, the ampoules are sealed off in a vacuum with a small flame.

Saturday, 5 February 2022

Constraints to Agricultural Productivity in Nigeria

Agriculture employs nearly three-quarters of Nigeria’s work force, as is the case in most of Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). Agriculture is the principal source of food and livelihood in Nigeria, making it a critical component of programs being sought to reduce poverty and attain food security in Nigeria. Recent interest in changing agricultural productivity stems from the knowledge that income growth comes from productivity growth and savings supported investment.

In the meantime, the largely subsistence agricultural sector in the country has not kept up with rapid population growth as reported by Nzeh, (2013). Nigeria was once a large net exporter of food but now she imports a large quantity of her food products, though there is resurgence in manufacturing and exporting of food products in the recent time. In Nigeria today, more than 90% of the agricultural output is from the small scale farmers, with less than two hectares under cultivation on average. Their poverty reduction level has been affected further by the unstable or unsteady nature of the economy in the present time.

Meanwhile, there are several endogenous and exogenous factors that have hindered the maximum performance of the agricultural sector in Nigeria but the major constraints which are sector and commodity specific that prevent much increasing agricultural productivity in Nigeria can be summarized as direct participation of the government in the provision of many farm inputs and services, and in the production, processing, and marketing of farm commodities; policy reversals and inconsistencies as reported by Nzeh, et al (2008).

Others are obsolete and inefficient processing equipment, and the inability to install new processing equipment due to high offshore costs; high on-farm costs of agrochemicals for small-scale farmers, so these farmers rarely apply fertilizers and insecticides at recommended levels, constant threats to seed multiplication schemes by fertilizer shortages and lack of protection for the out growers.

In the recent time, studies have shown that even compounding of feeds, which are affected by the low availability and low quality of the constituent raw materials are among the factors that hinder maximum performance of agrarian sector in the country.

Other critical endogenous and exogenous factors affecting productivity in the agricultural sector could be classified under:

Technical Progress: Technological innovations in most cases lead to greater improvements in output per worker. Consequently, a country that has achieved a high level of technological growth tends to have higher worker productivity. This leads to a more capital intensive and labour saving operations. In Nigeria, the level of technical progress is still very low as more than half of the population is still involved in agricultural production using rudimentary technology (cutlasses and hoes).
Quality of Labour Force: Attainment of higher productivity presupposes the availability of skilled labour force. Skilled labour force is required to transform the static past into a dynamic present and prosperous future. The inadequacy of skilled farm labour is further compounded by unavailability of labour, particularly when it is required to satisfy seasonal labour demand. This labour shortage has been aggravated by a substantial reduction in the supply of family labour due to the persistent rural-urban drift.
Capital Intensity: Increased technological developments augment productivity. As the capital stock per worker tends to be high, there would be an increase in worker productivity. Most farmers who are small scale farmers do not have adequate capital to expand their scale of operations and take advantage of profitable packages of technology to boost productivity.
Availability of Raw Materials: It is a well-known fact that no uninterrupted advance in real standard of living can be expected unless resources are domestically produced. Only very few countries, manage to achieve higher rates of productivity over a longer period of time if they depended on the import of raw materials. Productive soil, abundance of water supply, forestry and fishery are great assets to an economy. Equally important is the technical knowledge, not only to harness natural resources but also to retain their quality.
Policy Inconsistencies: Policy inconsistencies often send the wrong signals to stakeholders in agriculture and prevent private sector long term capital investment that could engender increased productivity in the agricultural sector. Frequent policy reversals also results in non-response to government policies by stake holders.
Inadequate Funding of Research Development: Research development which is a major source of increased productivity in the agricultural sector has not been adequately funded in the past. In addition, research findings have not been properly coordinated and transmitted to farmers that are expected to be the ultimate beneficiaries.
Socio-Economic Factor: The nature and character of socio-economic set up prevailing in an economy is a factor that is germane to productivity. There may be adequate amount of raw materials and abundant supply of technical knowhow; however, if the existing political, economic and social institutions are not conducive to improvement, it would be difficult to anticipate substantial gains in productivity.

Even with the numerous endogenous and exogenous constraints to agricultural productivity in Nigeria, one can still say that agriculture is a potent economic growth driver in the Nigerian economy.

Friday, 4 February 2022

ANALYSIS OF THE TRADE AGREEMENT BETWEEN BUHARI AND TRUMP

President Muhammadu Buhari was hosted by U.S. President Donald Trump at the White House to discuss issues, including fighting terrorism and economic growth. Buhari, during the one-day official working visit to the U.S. at the invitation of Trump, have bilateral meeting with the U.S. president and a working lunch. President Trump discussed ways to enhance strategic partnership and advance shared priorities between the two countries: promoting economic growth and reforms, fighting terrorism and other threats to peace and security, and building on Nigeria’s role as a democratic leader in the region.

“The relationship of the United States with Nigeria is deep and strong, and Nigeria’s economic growth, security, and leadership in Africa will advance our mutual prosperity,” the White House said. International affairs experts say Buhari’s U.S. visit is strategic in many fronts, especially in view of the fact that the Nigeria-U.S. relationship was not too good prior to the inauguration of Buhari as president. They say Buhari, being the first democratically-elected African President that would be hosted by Trump since his inauguration and also being the first African leader Trump spoke to on phone following his inauguration as the U.S. president, speak volume.

It is also noted that former U.S. Secretary of State Rex Tillerson visited Nigeria in March in a first five-country African tour embarked upon by any official of the Trump administration. These historic events, the experts say, apart from reaffirming Nigeria’s strategic position in Africa, raised a lot of expectations and opportunities during the visit. The Special Adviser to Buhari on Media and Publicity, Femi Adesina, highlighted some of the expectations and opportunities.

The meeting discussed ways to enhance the strategic partnership between the two countries and to advance shared priorities, such as promoting economic growth, fighting terrorism and other threats to peace and security. The meeting further deepens the U.S.-Nigeria relationship as the United States considers Nigeria’s economic growth, security and leadership in Africa to be critical aspects of their strategic partnership. Later in the day, President Buhari met with a group of business persons in agriculture and agro-processing, dairy and animal husbandry,”

The presidency said the Nigerian officials met with Boeing, the largest aircraft manufacturer in the world, on the National Carrier Project. On agriculture, the Nigerian delegation also met with large equipment manufacturers with focus on harvesting and post harvesting equipment. In the area of transportation, the officials met with the GE-led consortium for the implementation of the interim phase of the narrow gauge rail concession. A substantive concession agreement will be negotiated and finalized, to provide the consortium the opportunity to invest an estimated two billion dollars, to modernize the rail line from Lagos to Kano and from Port Harcourt to Maiduguri.

In addition, the concession framework and the interim phase framework agreements are expected to be signed during the visit. The Nigerian officials will also meet with U.S.-EXIM Bank and the U.S. Overseas Private Investment Corporation to explore competitive financing arrangements. U.S. Ambassador to Nigeria, Stuart Symington, said the Buhari-Trump meeting “will be a very high level meeting; it will help the U.S. to also understand Nigeria’s projection”.

There was independent conversation on security, governance, the Lake Chad Basin and Nigeria’s role as a democratic leader in the region,’’ Symington said. Nigeria’s Minister of Information and Culture, Alhaji Lai Mohammed, also described the visit as a sign of the growing cooperation between the U.S. and Nigeria and there were independent conversation on security, governance, the Lake Chad Basin and Nigeria’s role as a democratic leader in the region.”

The Trade Agreement Sign between the Two Presidents

“The meeting between President Trump and President Buhari centred majorly on security and the economy. President Buhari visit to Trump is quite important because it is going to offer the opportunity for the two countries to reset their ties. Probably the fact that the world is now understanding that Nigeria is very strategic not just to the sub-region but the entire Africa.

Amb. Hakeem Balogun, Nigeria’s ambassador to Indonesia, sees a very positive outing, saying the Nigeria-U.S. relation has improved greatly since Buhari became president and described the relationship as “very warm”. Prior to President Buhari’s ascendancy, the relationship was sort of lukewarm following the American’s complaints over Nigeria’s handling of security issues, human rights allegations, issues of corruption, issues of governance. These are issues which the present government has come in to make the focal point of its administration. And no doubt, even since then, the relationship has been very robust.

Trump underscored the importance the United States places on its relationship with Nigeria, and he expressed interest in working with Buhari to expand the strong partnership. The leaders agreed to continue close coordination and cooperation in the fight against terrorism in Nigeria and worldwide. Trump thanked Buhari for the leadership he has exercised in Africa and emphasised the importance of a strong, secure, and prosperous Nigeria that continues to lead in the region and in international forums. Balogun also said Buhari’s visit would be a win-win for both countries considering Nigeria’s ability to rally Africa on any issue at the international stage, a diplomatic advantage, which U.S. desperately needs. The U.S. recognises Nigeria as the leader on the continent. It shows that if they (U.S.) have to have a foothold in Africa or to do something in Africa, anything positive, they need the support of Nigeria.

TRADE

Nigeria is America’s 56th largest goods trading partner. The US exported goods worth USD$1.9 billion in 2016, and imported goods worth USD$4.2 billion that year, leaving the US with a trade deficit of USD$2.3 billion with Nigeria. But these numbers are deceptive because US imports are made up mainly of crude oil. Stripping out the oil, the US would have had a trade surplus of USD$1.7 billion in 2016. To alleviate poverty and create jobs Nigeria needs to export more non-oil products to the US. At the very least, Buhari should press Trump to strengthen the African Growth and Opportunity Act (AGOA) enacted in 2000 to facilitate the access of African exporters to the US market. Nigeria was the leading AGOA exporter in 2016, with over USD$2 billion worth of exports under the Act.

There are fears that Trump might jettison the Act, or weaken some of its provisions that he deems inimical to his “America First” philosophy. Buhari should defend it unequivocally. And he should tell Trump that Nigeria needs more US foreign direct investment. In 2016 the number was USD$3.8 billion in 2016, far less than the USD$13 billion the Chinese invested in Nigeria in the same year.

There are a lot of cooperation such as the commercial and investment dialogue which we have signed with the U.S. Secretary of Commerce Wilbur Ross. “It is really focused on how to deepen the commercial relationship in support of businesses from the two countries as well as the growing trade in a win-win partnership,’’ Enelamah said. Enelamah said that the U.S. businesses operating in Nigeria were looking for a way to increase their investments to improve production and create employment. “There is the big one – the 2 billion-dollar investment – to revamp our existing rail and making sure it is used for cargo and transport. “That is the narrow gauge and the exiting rails we have in addition to all the new ones we have and that is just one investment from one company. “Some of the companies which authorities Buhari had met with included John Deere for assembling and supplying tractors in Nigeria. He said that the company would train, employ people and help the agriculture value chain in terms of mechanisation and automation, among others. The minister said that other multi-million dollar companies such as Cotava and Continental Grains, among others, were committed to making serious investments in Nigeria that would run into billions of dollars. “Boeing is very interested in supporting the aviation sector; it plans to roll out something that will increase the availability of flights from Nigeria while Procter & Gamble is looking to expand its investment in Nigeria. “So, in terms of investment and commitment, there is every reason to be positive, it is certainly in billions of dollars, we need to sharpen our pencils and take it on. “I was encouraged by the level of engagement, commitment and frankly, the way people perceive and assess the opportunities; I think it’s good we had the blessings and the endorsement of the two presidents.

The Trump administration showed commitment and the general impression that it would support what the Nigerian government was doing. Nigeria is gaining a lot; in the area of security, as the American Government is not only selling Tucano helicopters to Nigeria, they’re going to follow it up with training and other assistance. It is also seen that Trump’s commitment (US) would now focus on the agriculture sector in its assistance to Nigeria. In the same vein, Gov.

BUSINESS AS USUAL

The US-Nigeria relationship has historically been driven less by economics, but more by convenience and indifference. While Nigerian presidents covet a visit to the White House, US presidents tend to be indifferent, and sometimes passive, about Nigerian affairs. An example is the blind eye various US administrations turned as successive military dictators presided over Nigeria for three decades. Some of those dictators managed to stash their ill-gotten wealth in US financial institutions.

One can hardly predict the outcome of the trade agreement between country as previous experience were nothing to write home about. However, going by the trade agreement, it looks very promising for both country, but Nigeria have more to do balance its export to United trade of America with non-oil exports.

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Tuesday, 13 January 2026

Enems Project

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Request Academic Assistance

Saturday, 4 March 2023

The Communication Process

Communication Channels

Encoding Messages

Decoding Messages

Feedback

Sentence Fragments

Run-on Sentences

Subject-Verb Agreement

Parallel Structure

Thursday, 19 January 2023

THE APPLICATION OF COMPUTER IN REAL ESTATE APPRAISAL

Tuesday, 17 January 2023

Wednesday, 4 January 2023

a. ALBUMIN

b. ALPHA FRACTION

c. BETA FRACTION

d. GAMMA FRACTION

INDICATIONS

Interpretation of Results

Saturday, 31 December 2022

DEFICIENCY OF WATER-SOLUBLE VITAMINS

Wednesday, 28 December 2022

Sunday, 27 November 2022

6. Medicines: Microorganism are used to create multiple antibiotics such as Streptomycin from the microorganism streptococcus. Microorganism can also be used to create vaccines to prevent several diseases.

Preservation Of Organism And List The Common Method Of Preservation Of Vertebrates And Invertebrate

Saturday, 5 February 2022

Constraints to Agricultural Productivity in Nigeria

Friday, 4 February 2022

ANALYSIS OF THE TRADE AGREEMENT BETWEEN BUHARI AND TRUMP