PHYTOCHEMICAL SCREENING AND PROXIMATE ANALYSIS OF THE ROOT, LEAVES, FLOWERS AND LATEX JUICE OF Calotropis Procera

PHYTOCHEMICAL SCREENING AND PROXIMATE ANALYSIS OF THE ROOT, LEAVES, FLOWERS AND LATEX JUICE OF Calotropis Procera

CHAPTER ONE

1.0                                                       INTRODUCTION

1.1       Background of the Study

Plant derived substances have obtained greater attention in the recent years to prevent and cure human diseases as they are considered to be more biofriendly. It is generally estimated that over 6000 plants in Africa are in use in traditional folk and herbal medicine, representing about 75% of the medicinal needs of the third world countries (Veerachari and Bopaiah, 2011). According to Okoli et al (2007), traditional society in Africa has always used herbs to promote healing. A large body of evidence has accumulated to demonstrate the promising potentials of medicinal plants used in various traditional, complementary and alternate systems of treatments of human diseases (Alam, 2008).

The World Health Organisation in 1991 estimated that 70% of population from many countries are using traditional medicine to cure various ailments. Therefore, the useful products obtained from plants directly or indirectly, demonstrate their importance to man. Plants serve as a source of food (Katsayal et al., 2004; Kawo, 2007), medicinal product (Kawo et al., 2009), energy (Kawo, 2010) and shelter to man and his livestock (Ogunkunle and Oladele, 2004). Calotropis Procera is a weed plant commonly known as “apple of Sodom”. The plant belongs to Apocynaceae family which includes latex bearing plants. It is a small to medium-sized shrub, up to 5.5 m high and occasionally branchless to a height of 2.5 m. The bark is fibrous, scaly, deeply fissured when old, grey to light brown. All parts of the plant exude white latex when cut or broken. It is locally known as ‘tumfafiya’ in Hausa, its other local names are madar, akanda and arks (Noatay, 2005). The Yorubas of western Nigeria call it ‘Bomubomu’ and the Kanuri of northwestern Nigeria know it as ‘Kayou’. It is a plant of the dry savanna and other arid areas, mostly anthropogene occurring around villages (Aliyu, 2006). The only two species of this genus are Calotropis gigantea and Calotropis Procera. The main difference between the two is that while Calotropis gigantea has white flowers, Calotropis Procera has pinkish white flowers (Noatay, 2005).

 In the last few decades, Calotropis Procera is extensively studied for its medicinal properties by advanced scientific techniques and a variety of bioactive compounds have been isolated from the different parts of the plant and were analyzed pharmacologically. The plant is reported for analgesic activity, antimicrobial activity, antioxidant activity, anti-pyretic activity, insecticidal activity, cytotoxicity activity, hepatoprotective activity, pregnancy interceptive properties, purgative properties, procoagulant activity and wound healing activity. The medicinal properties of this plant represent it as a valuable source of medicinal compound (Kumar et al. 2016).

Different parts of Calotropis Procera have been reported to exhibit ethnomedicinal and nutritional properties. In addition, preparations from the latex with honey are used as antibodies and also in the treatment of toothaches and cough (Aworh et al., 2004). The leaf extract, chopped leaf and latex of Calotropis Procera have shown great promise as both in-vivo and invitro nematicides (Anver and Alam, 2012). Awune and Debray (2000) have earlier reported that though the leaf of Calotropis Procera is not known to be eaten by man as food, it is however taken as purgative and diuretic in Ivory Coast.

1.2       Statement of Problem

Calotropis Procera is a plant which is considered as a traditional means of curing or treating some ailments such as fever, rheumatism, indigestion, cold, eczema and diarrhoea but there has not been enough analysis on its phytochemical and proximate constituents in order to ascertain if it can be used for development of drugs as it is not taken as food into the body. This study therefore, will bring about knowledge on its chemical constituents as well as other chemical benefits to enable good use of the plant.

1.3       Aim and Objectives

The aim of this research work is to carry out phytochemical screening and proximate analysis of the root, leaves, flowers and latex juice of Calotropis Procera.

The Objectives are:

1. Extraction from the various parts of the plant.
2. To perform phytochemical screening on the various extracts of the plant.
3. To determine the proximate composition (moisture content, ash content, crude lipid, fat, protein and carbohydrate).
4. To compare the parts statistically.

 1.5      Significance of the Study

This study is important because, its knowledge will give enough information on what the plant contains and possibly serve as a medium for production of medicinal products using the plant as a raw material.

1.6       Scope of the Study

This research work focuses on the phytochemical (flavonoids, anthocyanidins, steroids, saponins, anthraquinones, tannins, cardiac glycosides and alkaloids) and proximate analysis of flower latex juice, leaves and root of calotropis Procera plant.

ESTIMATION OF VITAMIN C CONTENT IN RIPE AND UNRIPE FRUIT (ORANGE AND PINEAPPLE)

ESTIMATION OF VITAMIN C CONTENT IN RIPE AND UNRIPE FRUIT (ORANGE AND PINEAPPLE)

ABSTRACT

The amount of vitamin C present in the sample of juice extracted from half ripe and ripe fruits of orange and pineapple was determined using standard analytical techniques. The vitamin C content of many fruit was higher when it was slightly immature and rephrases as the fruit hits its peak of ripeness for few such as orange and pineapple fruits, vitamin C content did rise with increased in ripeness. Fruits such as orange, pineapple lemon etc. contained a number of vitamin C that are used as supplement to treat everyday illness in human being.

CHAPTER ONE

1.0     INTRODUCTION

Fruits are divided into climatic and non-climatic classes on their respiration pattern during ripening. In non-climatic category are the grape fruit, lemon, orange, melon, pineapple and the strawberries. In these fruit, the respiratory pattern shows slow drift downwards after detachment from the parent plant while climatic classes undergoes a distinct ripening phage e.g bananas, pear and avocados. Ascorbic acid also know as vitamin c, when pure is a white crystalline water-soluble vitamin found especially in citrus fruits and vegetables. Ascorbic acid is the most abundant vitamin in orange, lemon, and grape. Fruit there is a considered variation in the ascorbic acid content of juice of different  fruits (groper 2005)

Vitamin c it the most important vitamin for human nutrition that is supplied by fruits and vegetables. It is a valuable food component because of its antioxidant and therapeutic properties.  (Fred 1966)

An accurate and specific determination of the nutrients content of fruits is extremely important to understand the relationship of dietary intake and human health. A wide variety of food exists that contains vitamin C. fruits, vegetables and organ meats are generally the best sources of ascorbic acid. For better utilization of fruits and vegetables as a human food, clear understanding of their nutritional value as well as the content of vitamin c estimation is essential. The amounts of ascorbic acid in plants varies greatly, depending on factors such as weather, maturity, handling and storage, ripening stage, species and variety of the fruits as well as temperature.

Vitamin C is an important anti-oxidant, helps to protect cancers, heat disease, stress etc. it is part of the cellular chemistry that provides energy. It is essential for sperm production and making the collagen protein involved in the building and health of cartilage joints, skin and blood vessels. Vitamin c helps in maintaining a healthy immune system. It aids in neutralizing pollutants, it is needed for anti-bodies production. It aids increase in the absorption of nutrients (including iron) into the gut and the blood (Levine et al, 1999).

It is important to the health and well being of humans. It works by stimulating the immune system and protecting against damage by the free radicals released by the blood in its fight against infection. It protects blood vessel integrity and elderly person may prevent cognitive impairment and possible stroke.

The amount of vitamin c needed by the body can be obtained from a diet which contains fresh fruits and vegetables that provides protection against cancer and heart disease.(Levine et al 1999).

Deficiency of vitamin c lead to scurvy, a disease characterized by sourness and stiffness of the joint and lower extremities rigidity, swollen and bloody gums and hemorrhage in the tissue of the body. If can also be characterized by fatigue muscular and bone pairs and depression. As the deficiency progresses there may be in wound healing and bleeding of the gums while brushing (Romero 1992) there may be enlargement of the hair follicles causing roughness of the skin, there may be anemia and possible pathological bone fracture due to failure of normal bone formation. Death results from pneumonia and cardiac failure (gale, 1995).

Pure vitamin c contains balanced of essential minerals; calcium; magnesium, potassium, and zinc. Most Americans are deficient in one or more of these key minerals due to stress ill health food processing toxic and factors (gale 1995).

ISOLATION AND IDENTIFICATION OF MICROORGANISM ASSOCIATED WITH WHITE AND YELLOW GARRI AND THEIR SUSCEPTIBILITY PATTERN TO BOTH ANTIBIOTICS AND ANTIFUNGAL AGENTS

ISOLATION AND IDENTIFICATION OF MICROORGANISM ASSOCIATED WITH WHITE AND YELLOW GARRI AND THEIR SUSCEPTIBILITY PATTERN TO BOTH ANTIBIOTICS AND ANTIFUNGAL AGENTS

ABSTRACT

This study assessed the microorganisms associated with white and yellow garri and their susceptibility patterns to both antibiotics and antifungal agent. The study specifically isolate the bacteria present in white and yellow garri, after which the susceptibility pattern of the isolates to antibiotics and antifungal agents was determined. The result shows that the microbial count of white and yellow types of garri samples obtained from the market are within the limits of 10^-2 to 10^-4 cfug^-1 and are contaminated with coliforms and fungi to about the same order. The study also reveals that the garri samples were contaminated by diverse microbial spp mainly of Bacillus, Pseudomonas, Klebsiella and  Micrococcus luteus. The bacteria and fungi isolated have different levels of antibiotics and fungi resistance to antibiotics and antifungal agents. The presence of susceptibility of bacterials and fungi in garri can pose a public health hazard when transferred to humans by consuming garri contaminated with the organisms; thus it is recommended  people especially students should be encouraged to reduce intake of garri without thorough thermal treatment to prevent food infections or intoxications. There is need for garri processors and retailers to maintain stricter personal hygiene and food safety consciousness in terms of using clean covered transparent containers as garri retailing containers so as to reduce direct and indirect contaminations by air-borne droplets and spores of the isolates in dust and air.

CHAPTER ONE

1.0       INTRODUCTION

Garri is a traditional cassava flakes; in simple terms it is flour made from cassava (Mannihot esculenta) that is popular among the people of West Africa (Akindele et al., 2018). The production involves peeling of the cassava tuber, soaking in water for about 6 days followed by grinding into a pulp. Afterwards, the pulp is placed in a spongy bag under compression in order to strain out the water content before frying in a calabash-like pot (Adeyemo et al., 2018). The resulting flake from frying is known as Garri which can be used in processing various food delicacies as well as taken raw like cornflakes. This ready-to-eat property of Garri makes it a widely acceptable quick-fix meal (Orji et al., 2016). It should be noted that during the process of manufacturing, the pulp gets exposed to microbiological contamination. However, during the fermentation period, lactic acid bacteria involved in the natural fermentation is suggested to have antimicrobial properties that lower counts of the possible pathogenic bacterial contaminant (Adeyemo et al., 2018).

Lactic acid bacteria are a group of gram positive, catalase negative, non-spore forming and non-motile bacteria that produces lactic acid as a major end product of glucose fermentation. They are widely grouped into three: obligate homofermentative (for example Lactobacillus acidophilus, Lactobacillus salivarus), facultative heterofermentative (for example Lactobacillus plantarum, Lactobacillus curvatus) and obligate heterofermentative (Lactobacillus fermentum, Lactobacillus reuteri) based on their sugar fermentation profile (Buddhiman et al., 2008). Consequently, within LAB group, Lactobacillus have been identified as one of the most important in traditional fermented food that are mainly used in functional food production and as a starter culture in food fermentation. They are able to utilize the nutrient in the food matrix for fermentation, producing byproducts such as organic acids, aromatic compounds and antimicrobial peptides termed bacteriocin that limits growth of pathogenic organisms (Mamta et al., 2017).

Although there are several pathogenic bacteria which are food contaminants (Frantamico et al., 2007) that can also be found in garri, Escherichia coli is of great concern (Fossi and Ndjouenkeu, 2017). This is due to the fact that one of the most important causative agents of diarrhoeal disease has mainly been Escherichia coli (Frantamico et al., 2007) and the process of handling garri during production predisposes it to contamination by E. coli. Furthermore, it has been a serious public health issue worldwide; irrespe of the source of transmission either environmental or clinical E. coli are always of great health concern (Steven and David, 2014).

Thus, beneficial organisms such as Lactobacillus with documented safety profile possessing antagonistic potential against pathogens have received increased attention for their possible usage as probiotics in place of antibiotics (Servin, 2004). This study aims to isolate lactic acid bacteria within the garri matrix that has inhibitory effect on E. coli isolated from clinical settings.

1.1       Aims and objectives

1.1.1    Aim

To access the microorganism associated with white and yellow garri and their susceptibility patterns to both antibiotics and antifungal agent.

1.1.2    Objectives

• To isolate the bacteria present in white and yellow garri sold in Nasarawa market and to identify the fungi present in the garri sample
• To determine the susceptibility pattern of microorganism to both antibiotics and antifungal agents.

GRAM NEGATIVE BACTERIA (GNB) ISOLATED FROM USED HOME-MADE AND SURGICAL NOSE/FACE MASK

GRAM NEGATIVE BACTERIA (GNB) ISOLATED FROM USED HOME-MADE AND SURGICAL NOSE/FACE MASK

CHAPTER ONE

1. Introduction

Micro-organisms can spread easily, and the air itself (Shivakumar et al., 2017). Bioaerosols formed from specific equipment usages, these are invisible to the naked eye and can remain in the environment as aerosols for long periods of time. These aerosols may be inhaled into the lungs to migrate to the alveoli or may come in contact with the skin or mucous membranes (Shivakumar et al., 2017). Aerosol that are 100 micrometer or more in diameter are thought to be too large to be inhaled; however, they may still come into contact with the skin, eyes, and mucous membranes or may settle down on the exposed hair and clothing. Thus, diseases like pneumonia, influenza, hepatitis, may be transmitted with skin and eye (Shivakumar et al., 2017). Since masks protect the mucous membranes of the nose and mouth, they must be worn wherever there is a potential for splashing, saliva or body fluids, or where there is a probability of the inhalation of aerosols with a potential for transmission of airborne pathogens.

Nose mask is an essential infection control barrier, a very important subject in the prevention of infectious diseases. Surgical masks are fluid- repellent paper filter masks and are suitable for both surgical and non-surgical individuals procedures that generate aerosols.. This three-ply material is made up from a melt blown material placed between non-woven fabrics. The melt-blown material acts as the filter that stops microbes from entering or exiting the mask. Most surgical and home made masks feature pleats/folds commonly three pleated are used allowing the user to expand the mask so it covers from the nose and under the chin (Baratam, 2014). According to the CDC guidelines, surgical nose and home made mask is a personal protective barrier (CDC, 2013). The use of surgical nose masks is synonymous with the use by the public and is so deeply ingrained that to question it would have been unheard of until recently (Lipp, 2013). Unlike the white coats, the filtration abilities of a mask begins to decline after approximately 20 minutes with exposure to moisture and the external surface of a mask gets contaminated by the aerosols present in the environment and becomes a source of cross contamination and thus requires proper disposal, but unfortunately,local resident of AkungbaAkoko, Ondo state Nigeria dispose the used nose/ face mask indiscriminately and reused the nose mask, this create a false sense of protection against various diseases causative agent. This research work is an eye opener to the inherent danger of reused nose/face mask.

A surgical nose mask is a single-use device designed to retain infective agents present in the exhaled breath. Surgical masks are often referred to as face masks, but not all commercially available face masks are regulated as surgical masks a very good example is the home made nose mask. Surgical masks are made to act as barrier to droplets or aerosols while surgical respirators are made to filter out airborne particles including viruses and bacteria. Surgical masks and surgical respirators are marked as medical devices. For example, N95 means that the mask provides the intended effectiveness of filtering 95% of particles with a mass median diameter of 0.3 micrometers(Lipp, 2013).

Non-woven fabric i.eHome made mask, has better bacteria filtration efficiency and air permeability, while remaining less slippery than the woven cloth (Henneberry, 2020). It is most commonly made of polypropylene, or, in combination with polyethylene of PET polyester. The filtration level of a mask will therefore depend on the types of the non-woven fabrics used for its manufacture and these will vary according to the application. According to the standards surgical masks are made to be effective at filtering out particles such as bacteria above 1 micron.

The home made nose mask are nose mask that is hand weaving or swing machine made nose mask, made from different fabric of layered cloth, a, mechanical barrier for inhalation of Bioaerosols. Both Home-made Nose mask (HNM) and Surgical Nose mask (SNM) are effective in preventing the transmission of infectious diseases like influenza virus and Corona virus (Cowling et al., 2019). The level of protection of masks against infectious diseases depends on multiple factors such as the appropriate usage and fit of the mask, level of exposure, compliance, complementary interventions (such as hands washing), early use , as well as the type of mask (Maclintyre, 2014). A recent study indicated that surgical face masks could, in a real-life situation, prevent the transmission of common cold and corona viruses from symptomatic individuals (Greenhalgh, 2020).

A recent study indicated that surgical face masks could in a real-life situation, prevent the transmission of common cold and corona viruses from symptomatic individuals (Greenhalgh, 2020). The WHO recommends that PPE masks should be used based on the risk of exposure (e.g., type of activity) and the transmission dynamics of the pathogen (e.g., contact, droplet, or aerosol). The use of masks may give users a false sense of protection, thus encouraging risk-taking. Although the effectiveness of reusable face masks is unclear, this is one of the reason that necessitate this research work, a response from on the short age of single-use masks states that reusable masks do offer some form of protection .

However, protocols on how to use reusable masks alongside complementary interventions should be developed to increase their affectivity in protecting against infection studied the effectiveness of homemade mask in blocking transmission of the microorganisms in healthy volunteers. Generally, the effectiveness of a cloth (Home-made) masks would depend on the fit, fineness of the cloth and the number of layers indicating that there is potential to design more effective fabrics (Home-made)masks. Most single-use face masks have an inbuilt filter,allowing for the insertion of a filter in a fabrics (Home-made), may increase their filtration capacities. There are concerns that use of masks may give general public a false sense of protection, thus encouraging risk-taking. Protocols should be developed on how to use and clean reusable masks alongside complementary interventions frequent to increase their affectivity in protecting against infection.

1.2       Statement of Problem

During the current coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic, caused by the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), the use of home-made and surgical nose/face masks has become increasingly recommended or even mandatory in community settings outside hospitals and care facilities (. Nose/Face masks are most often used to prevent respiratory droplet transmission and reduce transmission from people infected with respiratory viruses to non-infected people (Shivakumar et al., 2017).The efficacy of face masks against different airborne transmissions is now questionable as there is a general assumption that both home-made and surgical nose/face mask may be subject to bacteria infection and unsafe to use due to over-use or improper usage of the mask. In fact, the human saliva contains 100 million bacterial cells per milliliter and harbors a range of pathobionts, including Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Candida albicans, Klebsiellapneumoniae, Neisseria, Prevotella, and Veillonella spp. (Gender et al., 2013). This has become a thing of concern thus, this study becomes necessary to examine the Gram Negative Bacteria (GNB) isolated from used home-made and surgical nose / face mask.

1.3       Objective of the Study

The objective of this study is investigate gram negative bacteria isolated from used home-made and surgical nose/face mask.

Specifically the study will

1. Isolate and identify and determine the characteristics of the isolated bacteria
2. Determine the biochemical characteristics of the isolated bacteria
3. Identify the gram negative bacteria isolated from the used home-made / surgical nose / face mask.

AN ASSESSMENT OF BACKGROUND RADIATION LEVEL OF SOME SELECTED MINING PROCESSING IN NASARAWA

AN ASSESSMENT OF BACKGROUND RADIATION LEVEL OF SOME SELECTED MINING PROCESSING IN NASARAWA

ABSTRACT

Human is exposed to background radiation in their environment with or without their consent; and the exposure to natural background radiation is an unpreventable event on earth. The assessment was conducted for the determination of the amount of background radiation revel of some selected mining processing in Nasarawa. This was carried out using RDS-200 universal survey meter. The assessment was done on the mining processing ranges from 0.501msv/yr to 0.758msv/yr. for the indoor reading and 0.139msv/yr to 0.267msv/yr for the outdoor reading. The radiation levels in these selected mining processing were found to be within the safe limit. These results would serve as a baseline upon which another exposures would be assessed and in the future serve as reference for dosimetry and decontamination in situation of radiation poisoning of these mining processing.

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1       Background of the Study

Human exposure to background radiation is unavoidable. This is because we live in a “sea of radiation”. It is omnipresence nature in the atmosphere, terrestrial deposits and in our body makes it a unique area of assessing energy in our environment. Background Radiation is a long wavelength electromagnetic radiation that hits the earth uniformly from all direction. It represents energy left over from the “big bang” the explosion of the beginning of the universe. What makes it a background radiation is because of man’s environment most people often associate the word radiation with ionizing radiation (e.g as occurring in nuclear weapons, nuclear reaction) but it can also refer to electromagnetic radiation (i.e radio waves, infrared light, visible light and x-rays). This can also be ionizing radiation to acoustic radiation because energy radiate i.e. travels outwardly froth a source called an emitter in straight lines in all directions (Agba, 2016).

Natural Background radiation accounts for 80% of radiation source in our environment which includes cosmic radiation from the sun and outer space and consists of positives charged particles, form radioactive material found on earth surface as in rocks and soil as well as radiation in our bodies in form of element liker potassium 40. The first two sources mentioned as referred to as external sources of natural background radiation while the last is called the internal source of natural background radiation. The other 20% comes from the artificial background source like the nuclear power plants, nuclear weapon testing and medical procedures (x-rays and mammography) in medicine and dentistry (ICRP, 2020).

Radiation is classified in two forms based on energy level; the ionization form of radiation which is the high energy radiation capable of ionizing atoms. It includes Alpha Particles bête particles, gamma rays and neutrons. And the non-ionization form of radiation which is a low frequency and energy radiation. It includes ultraviolet rays, visible light microwaves, and radio waves.

Over the years the level of background radiation in our surrounding has grown significantly. A study conducted by Japan’s institute of radiological studies in 1977 shows that the increase in radiation level was due to nuclear power plant production. Other factors regarded as major contributors include nuclear reactor explosion mining activities, industrial waste and effluent from factories estimate of dose contribution in the environment shows that 85% of radiation dose received by man are derived from natural radionuclide while the remaining 15% comes from cosmic rays and nuclear process (IAEA, 2016).

In the year 2000, the average and the average background radiation for human being amounts to about 2.4 micro sievert per year (µSv/yr) and about 1µSv/yr comes from nuclear activities (UNCEAR, 2020). At sea level, the average cosmic radiation dose is about 26 mRem per year. At high elevation, the amount of atmosphere shielding cosmic rays decreases and thus the dose increases. Radioactive elements like uranium, thorium and atom which are the terrestrial emitting radio nuclides are also regarded as contributors to high level of background radiation (Ellwell, 2018). Radon for instance is a current health concern – radon gas formed from radioactive decay of natural uranium in the soil. It emits alpha radiation, raises from soil under houses and can build up in homes particularly well insulated homes (UNCEAR, 2020).

Exposure to radiation can cause severe damage to human biological system (Emeka, 2017). Although a dose of 25 Rems which is equivalent to 0.25mSv causes some detectable changes in blood, doses to near 100 Rems usually have no immediate effect. Dose above 100 Rems causes the first signs of nausea, vomiting, headache, some lost of white blood cells. Dose of 300 Rems on more cause temporary hair loss but also more significantly internal harm including damage to nerve cells and cells that line up the digestive tract (Agba, 2016). Severe loss of white blood cells which are the body defense system makes a radiation victim vulnerable to diseases. Radiation also reduces the blood platelets which aid blood clotting, so victims of radiation are vulnerable to hemorrhaging. Half of the people exposed to 450 Rems die and dose of 800 Rems are fatal. The main way of saving the cells of the body is to protect it from exposure to radiation. This is why radiation monitoring and measurement are quite essential in our society today (Hay, 2016).

1.2       Statement of the Problem

According to Agba et al., (2016), every person is exposed daily to variety of radiation whether he recognize it or not. This is due to the various activities in our immediate surroundings. In fact, the context of background radiation over the years has passed in silence especially in developing countries like ours Nigeria. If it is mentioned at all, it is mostly the theoretical possibilities that are highlighted and negligence in the study especially on it effect to man in his surrounding will continue to leave a threat to human existence. The study finds solution to question like; the various factors that lead to the variation in background radiation of different indoor surrounding of some selected mining processing in Nasarawa, the hazards of man’s continual exposure to radiation through different radiation emitting source and the possible protection and control measures to its exposure.

1.3       Aim and Objectives

1.3.1 Aim

The aim of this project is to measure the background radiation level of some selected mining processing in Nasarawa.

1.3.2    Objectives

In view of the aim of the study, the specific objective of the study will include:

1. To evaluate the amount of radiation present in mining processing in Nasarawa
2. To review the effects of long exposure to radiation
3. To create awareness of the possible danger posed by long exposure to radiation sources.

1.4       Justification of the Study

The limit of radiation exposure for non radiation workers is 1millisievert/yr while that for radiation workers is 20 millisievert average 5yrs according to the International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP). As such there is a need to know the amount of background radiation exposure in the mining processing from which the annual exposure in the tin shade can be calculated and compared with international limit started by the ICRP. Hence, there is the need to frequently and increasingly notify the public about the threat posed by radiation to health in general – also information derived from the study will therefore.

1. Provide database for information regarding management of background radiation level in mining processing.
2. Create more awareness on the danger posed by background radiation.
3. Serve as reference for further or subsequent research

1.5       Significance of the Study

The findings of this study will help in creating awareness of certain danger that comes with the background radiation to the workers in the selected mining processing in Nasarawa

1.6       Scope and Limitation of the Study

The study will focus on the assessment of the background radiation level of some selected mining processing in Nasarawa relative to the standard amount of absorbable radiation in order to determine the effect of background radiation to the general public. It is however limited due to the following challenges:

1. Insufficient finance to carry out the research work
2. Limited time
3. Poor cooperation by tin shade owners

EVALUATION OF ANTIMICROBIAL RESISTANCE OF MICROORGANISMS ISOLATED FROM NIGERIA CURRENCY NOTES

EVALUATION OF ANTIMICROBIAL RESISTANCE OF MICROORGANISMS ISOLATED FROM NIGERIA CURRENCY NOTES

ABSTRACT

Currency is a public support tool for exchange of commodity and services. It is prevalent practice for acquiring bread to broast and bath to bed as connected all being together irrespectively of race and occupation. Currency notes along with their denomination values carry pathogens if contaminated and will act as an agent for infection transference. Therefore the object of this cross-sectional study was to evaluate the antimicrobial resistance of bacteria and fungi isolated from Nigeria Currency notes. Currency notes under study were assessed through microbiological culture, microscopic and biochemical visualization techniques. The results from this cross-sectional study suggested that, the Nigeria higher currency note which include N100, N200, N500 and N1000 harbors the higher micro organisms which is as a result of the texture. While the lower denomination which include N5, N10, N20 and N50 made of polymer has the lower contamination. Among the bacteria isolated, Staphylococcus aureus, and Escherichia coli were found to be the most prevalent followed by Bacilluscerus and Salmonellatyphi. Aspergillus niger and Rhizopus spp were found to be the most prevalent among the fungi isolated followed by Mushroom razmorous and Trichophyton. The outcomes of this study revealed that, currency notes can be a source of microbe transmission causing infectious diseases represent public health hazards to the community and industrial.

CHAPTER ONE

1.0       Introduction

Background of the Study

Paper currency is widely utilized as a medium of exchange all through the world for trading (Sadawarte et al., 2014) In regular transaction, paper currency is being bandied by different categories of individual with the unhygienic condition and in this way, polluted with different kinds of pathogenic microorganisms (Borah et al., 2012). The Nigerian paper currency (naira note) whose denomination includes N5, N10, N20, N50, N100, N200,N500, and N1000 is used aslegal tender for various purposes, depending on the handler of the note(s).

The crude materials that are utilized for making paper currency assume a huge role in harboring microorganisms. The blend of cotton and linen used for making paper currency offers surface area for microorganism to grow. Previous study demonstrated that lower denomination notes get higher microbial contamination since they stay longer in circulation and exchanged more frequently (Khalil et al., 2014).

Paper currencies are normally defiled byvarious ways like sneezing, coughing, contacting with tainted hands ormaterials and placement on grimy place like pockets, socks, shoes and under floor covering (Moosavy, et al., 2013). In some fish, poultry and vegetable markets, the salesperson handle cash and their particular sales item simultaneously evading hand washing between their works. This practice enhances the danger of cross-contamination of microorganisms between vendors and purchasers (Michaels, et al., 2012). Studies have shown that money serves as a formite for transferring various types of pathogenic microorganisms such as Escherichia coli, Salmonella typhi, Staphylococcus aureus, Klebsiella, Pseudomonas, Aerobacter, and streptococcus faecalis among others  pathogenic microorganisms. Some of these pathogens are known to be important reservoirs for multidrug resistance gene, hence transferring them to otherpathogens.

Microorganisms are frequently transmitted through water, air, food and fomites (Borah, et al., 2011). Paper currency contaminated by organisms might act as fomites, play’s a significant role in the transmission of microorganisms and are therefore responsible for spreading communicable diseases (Borah et al., 2011). Paper currency notes thus presents specific hazard to public health as contagious diseases can spread through this paper currency (Borah et al., 2011).

Most of the paper currency are imbued with disinfectants to restrain the growth of microorganisms: yet, just a few pathogens are isolated from paper currency notes as it persists in circulation for a long time (Hanash et al., 2015). Different pathogenic microorganisms that harbor in paper currency which are related to gastroenteritis, throatdisease,pneumonia, urino-genital tract contamination, peptic ulcers and lung abscess have been accounted from various laces of the world (Hanash et al., 2015).

Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is now considered as one of the most serious global threats to human health as evidenced by the WHO’s report on antimicrobial resistance (WHO, 2018). Recently, multidrug resistance capabilities of microorganisms have turned out to be a major worry to public wellbeing and numerous infections have become harder to treat (Hanash et al., 2015). According to previous studies (Akond et al., 2015: Mukharjee et al., 20 17) various microorganisms isolated from paper money showed drug resistance to normally used antibiotics. Firoozeh et al. (2017) found high resistance rates of Staphylococcus spp, and Enterococci spp. against tetracycline, ampicillin and erythromycin isolated from paper currency. All class of individuals, including children habitually handles paper currencies and therefore the contaminated notes play a significant role in spreading of diseases.

Most of the people in rural and urban region take food without washing their hands after handling money and saliva is used to count the money increasing the chance of getting infection (Hosen et al., 2006). In Nigeria, majority of people do not appropriately wash hand and are ignorant of various transmissible diseases caused by pathogenic microorganisms in currency handling (Umeh et al., 2017). Just as there are a few reports on the microbial contamination of paper currency in the world, reports on Nigeria are also scanty (Hosen et al., 2006: Ahmed et al., 2010), Considering the above stated facts, this study was conducted to evaluate the antibiotics resistance of bacterial isolated from currency note.

Statement of the Problems

Money is not usually suitable for tile survival of microorganisms except for some that are resistant to external conditions and non-resistant forms of spores. In addition, the general hygiene levels of a community or society contribute to the amount of microbes found on the Naira notes and thus the chance of transmission during handling of money. Contamination of Naira notes by pathogenic microorganisms is of public health concern as contaminated Naira notes could be a source of transmitting microbial pathogens. Movement of Naira notes from hand to hand makes it more prone to contamination by pathogenic organisms. Polymer currency therefore, poses a serious threat to public health since communicable diseases could also be contracted through formites.

Currency is handled by all categories of people and may be contaminated during coughing, sneezing, touching with hands and placement on dirty surfaces. Many people tongue-wet their fingers when counting money and contaminate their fingers as well as currency notes. So, it is obvious that gets on hands may be transferred to money and vice-versa. Paper banknotes have a large surface area for bacterial attachment and would be a vector for transmission of potentially pathogenic microorganisms between populations (Umeh et al., 2017). The risk of microbial transfer by paper currency is influenced by factors such as paper value and duration of usage. Various pathogens which may cause throat infection, pneumonia, peptic ulcers, tonsillitis, urino-genital tract infections, gastro enteritis and lung abscess had been reported (Firoozeh et al. 2017). It is against these problems that this study seek to evaluate the antibiotics resistance of bacteria isolated from currency notes.

Aims of the Study

The aim of this study is to evaluate the antimicrobial resistance of bacteria and fungi isolated from Nigeria Currency notes.

Objectives of the Study

The specific objectives of this study include the following:

1. To isolate the bacteria and fungi from Nigeria currency notes
2. To enumerate the bacteria and fungi isolated from Nigeria currency notes.
3. To determine the antimicrobial susceptibility of the bacteria isolated from the currency note.

THE USE OF LOCAL PIGMENT AND EXTENDER FOR THE FORMULATION AND PRODUCTION OF EMULSION PAINTS

THE USE OF LOCAL PIGMENT AND EXTENDER FOR THE FORMULATION AND PRODUCTION OF EMULSION PAINTS

ABSTRACT

This study uses local pigment and extender for the formulation and production of emulsion paints. The emulsion paint was produced using water, hibiscus flower, hexane, yellow oxide (colour), Bermacol, Acrylate, Deformer, Gernapour, Texanol and ammonia. The study found that the specific graphic of the emulsion paint was found to be 25kg/m³, the density was 23g/ml while viscosity is at 100m²/s and the drying time of the formulated emulsion paint was found to be between 10 – 13 minutes outside and 10 – 20 minutes inside. the study shows that there was a good compatibility between the pigment and the binder during the paint formulation, which accounts for the deeper colour and good opacity for the emulsion paint formulated. The formulated emulsion was also found to have moderate viscosity which accounts for good flow properties. These results have revealed that the emulsion paints formulated could be used as both indoor and outdoor coatings.

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1       BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

Painting is a unique human activity that have helped the human race to contribute significantly in earning a better livelihood and building a better and more beautified world for ourselves (Akinterinwa, et al, 2018). Paints simply means organic coatings applied to surfaces with the sole aim of imparting both protective and aesthetic functions. Paints and other pigments come in a variety of gloss levels which corresponds to the level of a pigment dispersed in a substance usually called a vehicle or binder, usually polymeric in nature,which adheres to the substrate. The vehicle (i.e the binder) is one of the most important ingredients in paint formulation because it is a film-forming material or oil (Gopalan et al, 2020).

Paint is a fluid, or semi-fluid material which may be applied to surfaces in relatively thin layers, and which changes to a solid coating with time.  The change to a solid material may or may not be reversible, and may occur by evaporation of solvent by chemical reaction, or by a combination of the two. Paints usually consist of vehicle or binder, a pigment which contributes obscurities colour, hardness and bulk to the film, and a solvent or thinner which controls the consistency. Paint is basically classified into two, which are gloss paint and emulsion paint (Osemeahon and Dimas, 2013).

Gloss paints (oil-based paints) are paints that may be classified according to whether the drying mechanism is predominantly solvent evaporation, oxidation or some chemical reaction.  Gloss paints which dry essentially by solvent evaporation, rely on a fairly hard resin as the vehicle. Paints which dry by oxidation, the vehicle is usually an oil or an oil-based varnish, these usually contains driers to accelerate the drying of the oil.  Paint based essentially on oil with suitable pigment such as titanium dioxide, extenders, and usually zinc-oxide and white lead, are conventional outside house paints because these materials give the combination of properties which meet this requirement (Osemeahon and Dimas, 2013).

On the other hand, Emulsion paint is commonly water-based, with acrylic or vinyl added to make it more durable and easier to apply to walls and ceilings. These are paints with water-soluble vehicle and they include, calcimines, in which the vehicle is glue and case-in paints.  Emulsions are useful because they allow ways to deliver active materials in water which is inexpensive and innocuous. A related advantage of emulsions is they allow dilution of these active ingredients to an optimal concentration (Osemeahon and Dimas, 2013). Emulsions are commonly used in many major chemical industries. After an emulsion paint is applied, the water evaporates and the polymer particles pack closely and fuse together to form a continuous film. The use of water rather than an organic liquid means that emulsion paints produce fewer VOC (volatile organic compounds) when they are used.

Emulsion is the most popular paint for walls and a ceiling due to the fact that it is water based and has less smell, dries comparatively quickly and is easy to apply. This fact has necessitated the need to search for an appropriated paint binder which can challenge the good properties of oil paint on one hand and use water as a solvent on the other hand poly (vinyl acetate) (PVA), is one of such binders commonly used for emulsion paint formulation. On the contrary, paints derived from PVA are characterized by poor water, chemical and water resistances, flexibility, gloss and durability etc.

1.2       STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

In recent decades, conventional paints are more and more replaced by environmentally friendly formulas (Traumann et al., 2014)whose use is recommended due to ecological considerations, specifically the reduction of volatile organic compounds emissions (Tucaliuc, 2014) and economic aspectslow volumes of organic solvents which tend to have a limited availability and are expensive.  Conventional paints (Oil-based paint) is superior to emulsion paint in many respects such as water resistant, flexibility, gloss and durability. However, despite the superiority of oil paint over emulsion paint many countries are now threatening to band it usage through appropriate legislation due to it negative effect to the environment (Habibu, 2011). Many functional chemical ingredients in paints are not water soluble and require alcohol or other organic solvents to form solutions. These solvents may be costly, hazardous to handle, or toxic. Due to these problems, it has becomes necessary to produce paint from local and synthesized materials. This give rise to the need to carryout this study on the use of local pigment and extender for the formulation and production of emulsion paints.

1.3       OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY

Aim

The aim of this study is to use local pigment and extender for the formulation and production of emulsion paints.

Objectives

1. To identify the local pigment and extender that will be used for the production of emulsion paints
2. To determine thespecific gravity of emulsion paint
3. To determinetheresistance of the emulsion paints to wet abrasion paint
4. To determine the kinematic viscosity of the paint
5. To determinethe temperature stability of the paint
6. To determine the drying time of the paint produced

1.4       JUSTIFICATION OF THE STUDY

The justification of this work is that

• high quality local pigment and extenders are abundant in Nigeria and if properly sourced and processed by paint industries it will help in increasing the quantity of local paint, hence reducing the cost of paint production and conserve foreign exchange (forex) and
• It will provide job opportunities and reduce unemployment in the country.

1.5       SCOPE OF THE STUDY

The scope of this study includes the formulation and production of emulsion paint using locally available pigment and extender as a binder. Effects of some physical properties such as drying time, viscosity, elongational break, density, melting point, moisture uptake, refractive index was determined.

1.6       SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

On considering the high cost of imported raw materials for the production of emulsion paint in the paint industry, which at the end of the production affect the market price, likewise causing economy constrain, there is need to lookout for those locally available raw materials such as pigments and extenders (e.g calcium carbonate) which will give such desirable qualities and properties as those of imported raw materials (e.g Titanium Dioxide).

It will be interesting to note that science and engineering have some of possible solutions towards reduction of high cost of emulsion paint production and also this research work is directed towards the vital needs for the use of local pigments and extenders as raw materials for the production of emulsion paint of high quality and standards which will stand the test of time and also compete with those emulsion paints produced with imported raw materials.

Finally, this research work will be of more importance to the paint manufacturers in the country, who spend lots of money for importations of raw materials, while they are bless with much raw materials as pigments and extenders for emulsion paint production in the country.

QUALITATIVE AND QUANTITATIVE CONTENTS OF FLAVONOID AND TANNIN IN PAWPAW LEAF

ABSTRACT

This study carried out a qualitative and quantitative content analysis of flavonoid and tannin in pawpaw (Carica papaya) leaf.  Flavonoid and tannin are among the major chemical compounds (Phytochemicals) that occur naturally in plants especially in Pawpaw leave. They are characterized by multilateral pharmacological activity and broad spectrum of therapeutic actions. The qualitative phytochemical analysis of Carica papaya leaves showed the presence of flavonoid and Tannin. The qualitative test was justified by their color changes with their various reagents.  

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1       Background of the Study

Natural fruits with high dietary value play a significant role to the and urban communities in the form of food and nutrient enhancement. Plants are important in our everyday existence. They provide our foods, produce the oxygen we breathe, and serve as raw materials for many industrial products such as clothes, foot wears and so many others. Plants also provide raw materials for our buildings and in the manufacture of biofuels, dyes, perfumes, pesticides, adsorbents and drugs. The plant kingdom has proven to be the most useful in the treatment of diseases and they provide an important source of all the world’s pharmaceuticals. The most important of these bioactive constituents of plants are steroids, terpenoids, carotenoids, flavanoids, alkaloids, tannins and glycosides. Plants in all facet of life have served a valuable starting material for drug development (Ajibesin, 2011).

In modern existence, the function and advantageous effects of numerous phytonutrients from plant origins such as fruits and vegetables had drawn the much-needed attention from both the scientists as well as the general public. These phytochemicals are non- synthetic antioxidant which are often promoted owing to the concerns as regards toxicity of the synthetic ones. Asides from scavenging activity of free radicals, antioxidants identified from most of the plants possess health beneficial effects such as antibacterial, antiviral etc (Akah, Enwerem  and Gamaniel, 2007)

Carica Papaya is a brief, evergreen plant that grows up to 25 feet tall. Its hollow trunk is noticeable with leaf scars. The leaves grow in a spiraled huddle straight from the upper part of the stem on parallel petioles (leaf stalks) 1 to 31/2 feet long. The leaves are intensely divided and with an array in width from 1 to 2 feet. Naturally, the male and female flowers are produced on separate plants; however, there are hermaphrodite forms in cultivation which bear both male and female flowers on the same plant. The flowers are fleshy and waxy and have a light scent. The fruit has a taste of a combination of melons and peaches. Although, these trees are grown primarily for their fruit, however the tree contains latex from which papain, a digestive enzyme is extracted. Papain breaks down protein in meat to make it tender therefore Papaya can be used as a meat tenderizer (Baur, Sourer  and Weiss, 2008)

It has several uses in this Modern-day including Immuno-modulatory , Fiber of c. papaya is able to bind cancer-causing toxins in the colon and keep them away from the healthy colon cells, protein enzymes including papain, chymopapain and antioxidant nutrients in papaya including vitamin C, vitamins E, and beta-carotene, reduce the severity of asthma, osteoarthritis and rheumatoid arthritis. It provides the human with protection against inflammatory polyarthritis a form of rheumatoid arthritis involving two or more joints. It helps the lung to be healthy and save life, rubbing the white pulp of raw c. papaya expels pimples as well as wrinkles. Papaya works as a good bleaching agent (Everette, 2013).

The ripe papaya fruit contains significant amounts of macro and micro minerals which are Na, K, Ca, Mg, P, Fe, Cu, Zn and Mn. Ripe papaya is most commonly consumed as fresh fruit whereas green papaya as vegetable usually after cooking or boiling (Everette, 2013).  Some of its allergies are link to a latex fluid when it is not ripe, which can cause irritation and provoke allergic reaction in some people, excessive consumption of papaya can cause carotenemia, the yellowing of soles and palms, which is otherwise harmless. However, a very large dose would need to be consumed. Papaya contains about 6% of the level of beta carotene in carrots (the most common cause of carotenemia) (Everette, 2013).

1.2       Statement of the Problem

Antibiotics or antimicrobial substances like flavonoids and Tannins etc are found to be distributed in plants, yet these compounds were not well established due to the lack of knowledge and techniques. The phyto-constituents which are phenols, anthraquinones, alkaloids, glycosides, flavonoids and saponins are antibiotic principles of plants. Plants are now occupying important position in allopathic medicine, herbal medicine, homoeopathy and aromatherapy. Medicinal plants are the sources of many important drugs of the modern world. Many of these indigenous medicinal plants are used as spices and food plants; they are also sometimes added to foods meant for pregnant mothers for medicinal purposes (Akinpela and Onakoya, 2006). Many plants are cheaper and more accessible to most people especially in the developing countries than orthodox medicine, and there is lower incidence of adverse effects after use. These reasons might account for their worldwide attention and use. The medicinal properties of some plants have been documented by some researchers ( Akinpelu and Onukoya, 2006).

Medicinal plants are of great importance to the health of individuals and communities. It was the advent of antibiotics in the 1950s that led to the decline of the use of plant derivatives as antimicrobials (Marjorie, 1999). Medicinal plants contain physiologically active components which over the years have been exploited in the traditional medical practices for the treatment of various ailments (Ajibesin, 2011). A relatively small percentage of less than 10% of all the plants on earth is believed to serve as sources of medicine (Marjorie, 1999).

1.3       Aims and Objectives of the Study

Aim

The general aim of this study is to carry out a qualitative and quantitivate contents analysis of flavonoid and tannin in Pawpaw leaf.

Objectives

The specific objective of this study include:

• To carry out a proximate constituents analysis of pawpaw leaf
• To determine the qualitative and quantitative contents of Tannin and flavonoid in pawpaw leaf

PHYTOCHEMICAL MINERAL ANALYSIS OF PAWPAW LEAF

PHYTOCHEMICAL MINERAL ANALYSIS OF PAWPAW LEAF

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1       Background of the Study

Natural fruits with high dietary value play a significant role to the and urban communities in the form of food and nutrient enhancement. Plants are important in our everyday existence. They provide our foods, produce the oxygen we breathe, and serve as raw materials for many industrial products such as clothes, foot wears and so many others. Plants also provide raw materials for our buildings and in the manufacture of biofuels, dyes, perfumes, pesticides, adsorbents and drugs. The plant kingdom has proven to be the most useful in the treatment of diseases and they provide an important source of all the world’s pharmaceuticals. The most important of these bioactive constituents of plants are steroids, terpenoids, carotenoids, flavanoids, alkaloids, tannins and glycosides. Plants in all facet of life have served a valuable starting material for drug development (Ajibesin, 2011).

In modern existence, the function and advantageous effects of numerous phytonutrients from plant origins such as fruits and vegetables had drawn the much-needed attention from both the scientists as well as the general public. These phytochemicals are non- synthetic antioxidant which are often promoted owing to the concerns as regards toxicity of the synthetic ones. Asides from scavenging activity of free radicals, antioxidants identified from most of the plants possess health beneficial effects such as antibacterial, antiviral etc (Akah, Enwerem  and Gamaniel, 2007)

Carica Papaya is a brief, evergreen plant that grows up to 25 feet tall. Its hollow trunk is noticeable with leaf scars. The leaves grow in a spiraled huddle straight from the upper part of the stem on parallel petioles (leaf stalks) 1 to 31/2 feet long. The leaves are intensely divided and with an array in width from 1 to 2 feet. Naturally, the male and female flowers are produced on separate plants; however, there are hermaphrodite forms in cultivation which bear both male and female flowers on the same plant. The flowers are fleshy and waxy and have a light scent. The fruit has a taste of a combination of melons and peaches. Although, these trees are grown primarily for their fruit, however the tree contains latex from which papain, a digestive enzyme is extracted. Papain breaks down protein in meat to make it tender therefore Papaya can be used as a meat tenderizer (Baur, Sourer  and Weiss, 2008)

It has several uses in this Modern-day including Immuno-modulatory , Fiber of c. papaya is able to bind cancer-causing toxins in the colon and keep them away from the healthy colon cells, protein enzymes including papain, chymopapain and antioxidant nutrients in papaya including vitamin C, vitamins E, and beta-carotene, reduce the severity of asthma, osteoarthritis and rheumatoid arthritis. It provides the human with protection against inflammatory polyarthritis a form of rheumatoid arthritis involving two or more joints. It helps the lung to be healthy and save life, rubbing the white pulp of raw c. papaya expels pimples as well as wrinkles. Papaya works as a good bleaching agent (Everette, 2013).

The ripe papaya fruit contains significant amounts of macro and micro minerals which are Na, K, Ca, Mg, P, Fe, Cu, Zn and Mn. Ripe papaya is most commonly consumed as fresh fruit whereas green papaya as vegetable usually after cooking or boiling (Everette, 2013).  Some of its allergies are link to a latex fluid when it is not ripe, which can cause irritation and provoke allergic reaction in some people, excessive consumption of papaya can cause carotenemia, the yellowing of soles and palms, which is otherwise harmless. However, a very large dose would need to be consumed. Papaya contains about 6% of the level of beta carotene in carrots (the most common cause of carotenemia) (Everette, 2013).

1.2       Statement of the Problem

Antibiotics or antimicrobial substances like flavonoids and Tannins etc are found to be distributed in plants, yet these compounds were not well established due to the lack of knowledge and techniques. The phyto-constituents which are phenols, anthraquinones, alkaloids, glycosides, flavonoids and saponins are antibiotic principles of plants. Plants are now occupying important position in allopathic medicine, herbal medicine, homoeopathy and aromatherapy. Medicinal plants are the sources of many important drugs of the modern world. Many of these indigenous medicinal plants are used as spices and food plants; they are also sometimes added to foods meant for pregnant mothers for medicinal purposes (Akinpela and Onakoya, 2006). Many plants are cheaper and more accessible to most people especially in the developing countries than orthodox medicine, and there is lower incidence of adverse effects after use. These reasons might account for their worldwide attention and use. The medicinal properties of some plants have been documented by some researchers ( Akinpelu and Onukoya, 2006).

Medicinal plants are of great importance to the health of individuals and communities. It was the advent of antibiotics in the 1950s that led to the decline of the use of plant derivatives as antimicrobials (Marjorie, 1999). Medicinal plants contain physiologically active components which over the years have been exploited in the traditional medical practices for the treatment of various ailments (Ajibesin, 2011). A relatively small percentage of less than 10% of all the plants on earth is believed to serve as sources of medicine (Marjorie, 1999).

1.3       Aims and Objectives of the Study

Aim

The general aim of this study is to carry out a phytochemical mineral analysis of pawpaw leaf.

Objectives

The specific objective of this study include:

• To carry out a proximate constituents analysis of pawpaw leaf
• To determine the qualitative and quantitative contents of mineral contents in pawpaw leaf

DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF AUTOMATIC FLUID LEVEL DETECTOR

DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF AUTOMATIC FLUID LEVEL DETECTOR

ABSTRACT

Over the years people have been climbing overhead tanks and using dipsticks to detect the level of fluid in tanks. This is usually difficult and time wasting. This project is the design and construction of a device which can indicate the indicators; indicating when the fluid is at the upper, middle and lower levels of the tank. It is recommended that an alarm system should be incorporated in the next design.

Key words: Design, detector, fluid, tank, level.

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

Over the years people use dipsticks for underground tanks and climb over head tanks to check the level of liquid in them. These systems are usually very stressful and may not be accurate. In the technology societies of today, only a very few number of people do not use electronic equipments in one way or the other. Most electronic devices such as electric iron, radio, receiver, electric fire system (for heating room during cold weather) are used in homes and factories.

Today the need to determine the level of fluid in the tank, car radiator arises frequently in many homes and industries. In Nigeria, where most people are still using surface tanks and reservoirs for storing fluids, it is very important to know the level of the fluid inside these containers.

 However, an automatic liquid level detecting device is introduced to being a stop to wastage of liquids. The components used for this construction are available and affordable which makes it more advantageous and easy to own.

1.1       BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

This project work is the design and construction of automatic fluid detector. The use of fluid level detectors today makes it easier for the surface tank use in house hold, factories or fuel deports to ascertain, the level of the fluid that remains inside the tanks, without the need for climbing up to the tank or use dipsticks to ascertain the level of the fluid. Also, car drivers may know the level of the fluid in their cars’ radiators when it falls below a certain threshold level.

1.2       THE OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY

The aim and objective of the project is to design and construct an automatic fluid level detector that will give; an easy knowledge of the liquid remaining in the tank or reservoir.

1.3       SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

The significant of this project is to produce an easy way of detecting the level of fluid in an underground or over head tanks without climbing or using dipsticks to ascertain the level of the fluid remaining in the tank.

1.4       SCOPE OF THE STUDY

The project is designed to be used on surface tanks, car radiators and reservoirs or similar fluid containers.

This project work is the use of light emitting diodes (LED) system. The work involve the design and construction of automatic fluid level detector through light emitting diode to be used domestically in homes and industrially for over head and underground tanks.

COMPARATIVE PHYTOCHEMICAL SCREENING OF Ocimum gratissimum (SCENT LEAF), Moringa oleifera (HORSERADISH) AND Azadirachta indica (NEEM TREE)

COMPARATIVE PHYTOCHEMICAL SCREENING OF Ocimum gratissimum (SCENT LEAF), Moringa oleifera (HORSERADISH) AND Azadirachta indica (NEEM TREE)

ABSTRACT

Comparative phytochemical screnning was conducted to determine the phytochemicals resent in Moringa oleifera (Horseradish), Ocimum gratissimum (Scent leaves) and Azadrichta indica leaves (Neems tree). Qualitative analysis was carried out on the extract; the result showed that flavonoids, tannins, glycosides and alkaloids were all present in the three plant leaves (+). Saponins and Steroid were absent in A.indica (-) but present in O.gratissimum and M. oleifera.(+). This is an indication that these plants are rich in phytochemical constituents and thus account for their medicinal benefits.

CHAPTER ONE

Introduction

Plants are potent biochemicals and have been components of phytomedicine since times immemorial. Man is able to obtain from them a wondrous assortment of industrial chemicals. Plant based natural constituent can be derived from any part of the plant like bark, leaves, flower, root, seeds e.t.c. (Gordon and David, 2001). Any part of the plant may contain active components. The beneficial medicinal effects of plant material typically result from the combination of secondary products present in the plant. The medicinal action of plants are unique to particular plant species. The systematic screening of plant species with the purpose of discovering new bioactive compounds is a routine activity in many laboratory in particular, the search for component with antimicrobial activity has gained increasing importance in recent times, due to growing worldwide concern about the alarming increase in the rate of infection by anti-biotic resistant microorganism (Davies, 1994). Hence, there is a constant need for new and effective therapeutive agents.  Many plant species have been utilized as traditional medicine but it is necessary to establish the scientific basis for the therapeutic action of traditional plant medicine as these may serve as the source for the development of more effective drugs. Scientific analysis of plant component follows a logical pathway. Plant are collected either randomly or by following lead supplied by local healers in geographical area when the plant are found. (Vileges, et al., 1994).

In recognition of this fact, the World Health Organization (WHO) has been attempting to incorporate traditional medicine officially into the health care systems of developing nations. In 1998, the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) and the World Wild Fund (WWF), together with WHO brought health professionals and leading conservationist together in Thailand to produce a set of guidelines for countries wishing to make the best use of their medicinal herbs/ plants and to conserve them for the future. They stressed the vital importance of these plants in primary health care and the great potential of the plant kingdom to provide new drugs (Silva, 1998). Several countries already boast their systems in which traditional plant-based medicine is officially accepted. However, it is apparent that, there exists a significant difference in the way in which western scientists view an illness and its cure, and the way it is perceived else where. It is often at a loss to explain how plants are used directly, especially in a traditional manner which sometimes involves rituals and supernatural intervention (Busia, 2005). In essence, all plants are by nature living chemical factories, and it is the complex substances that they produce that we have mostly used to help keep us healthy. Apart from the medicinal properties of these plants, some serve as a good source of food and shelter for man. And thus, the ability of plants to be converted to orthodox medicine used to relieve pain and effect cure is often seen in some parts of the plants. These parts are the stem barks, root barks, fruits, seeds, leaves and root. (Leckridge, 2004). The medicinal value of drugs is due to the presence of certain substances such as alkaloid, saponin etc. these are known as active principles. They are commonly found or more concentrated in the storage organs of plant such as roots, bark, leaves and seeds.

 Ocimum gratissimum (Scent leaf) is a herb used in making anti-bacteria medicines. It belongs to the Lamiacea family and Ocimum genus. This herb mainly grows in India, Africa and parts of South-East Asia. It is a home grown plant and is also commercially cultivated. It is known as Vana Tulsi in India, in Africa it has many local names like Efirin (Yoruba), Nchanwu (Igbo), Daidoya (Hausa). The plant bears essential oil in its leave and stems which is extracted to make several medicinal substitutes. Ocimum gratissimum has numerous medical uses.

Moringa oleifera (Moringaceae) is a highly valued plant, distributed in many countries of the tropics and subtropics. It has an impressive range of medicinal uses with high nutrition value. Different parts of this plant contain a profile of important minerals, and are a good source of protein, vitamin, B carotene, amino acids, and various phenolics. In addition to its compelling water purifying powers and high nutritional value, Moringa oleifera is very important for its medicinal value. Various part of this plant such as the leaves, roots, seed, bark, fruit, flowers and immature  pods  acts  as  cardiac  and  circulatory  stimulants,  possess antitumor,  antipyretic,  antiepileptic,  anti-inflammatory,  antiulcer, antispasmodic,  diuretic,  antihypertensive,  cholesterol  lowering, antioxidant, antidiabetic, hepatoprotective, antibacterial and antifungal activities.

Azadirachta indica on the other hand is a very useful traditional medicinal plant in the sub-continent and each part of the tree has some medicinal properties. The plant is native to Asia, but has now naturalized in West Africa and is widely cultivated in Nigeria as an ornamental as well as medicinal plant.

1. Background of the Study

One of the increasing differences between citizens of developed nations and the developing ones is clearly expressed in the quality of life that is led by them. In Nigeria and Africa at large, the average life expectancy is less than 55 years (WHO, 2014). In contrary to this figure, the average of those in developed nations was put at 71 years (WHO, 2013). This stunning difference calls for concern and essentially erodes the need to embark on policy backed scientific investigation into palpable reasons for this phenomenon. Emerging facts show that primary to quality of life when drive they determines the life expectancy index among other variables in the quality of health nutrition of a people and closely knitted to this are the availability and access to medicine and health practitioners. However, the problem of wide spread poverty which translates into inability to afford both good food nutrition and medical care is a challenge and factor that, in most cases, constrains most of the local people to rely heavily on locally available foods and plants herbs for treatment of diseases when the occasion arises. Having considered the above, it is important to state that government and stakeholders are beginning to lay emphasis on the need to co-opt ethno medicine into mainstream practice as a way of augmenting shortfalls in its obligations in providing healthcare to local populace.  The Federal College of Alternative Medicine (FEDCAM) is one of the few examples that readily comes to mind. Thus, on this basis, there is an increased and continuous research on various plant types both by health nutritionist and pharmacologist with the aim of identifying valuable nutritive and medicinal plants for health needs and challenges. The conscious effort to investigate the chemical compositions of the sample leafy vegetable in this more is influenced by the sustained use of the vegetable over the ages either as simple food or herbal medicine. Thus, testing the leafy vegetable to ascertain the presence and amount of phytochemicals compositions alongside proximate and antinutrient is to enable a statement of affirmation or otherwise of the O. gratissum, M. oleifera and A. indica as a plant of high value in the health needs of the populace and should therefore, be given proper publicity to encourage increased domestic cultivation and consumption of the vegetable.

It is against the backdrops of the foregoing that the efforts at research on the leaves are embarked upon to validate, refute or add to existing body of findings on the sample leaf of fact found during this work. While attention will be given to testing, screening to detect and determine through quantitative analysis of test results. It is hoped that emerging facts will be of immense help to anticipated end users.

Phytochemicals

Phytochemicals are a large group of plant derived compounds hypothesized to be responsible for much of the disease protection conferred from diets high in fruits, vegetables, beans, cereals, and plant based beverages such as tea and wine. Phytochemicals can be broken into the following groups, Flavonoids, Phenols, Steroids, Tannin, Glycoside and Alkaloid and many others.

1. Statement of the Research Problem

With the ever increasing need and challenges in society, the use of Ocimum gratissimum (Scent Leaf), Moringa Oleifera (Horseradish) And Azadirachta Indica (Neem) Leaves has been acknowledged as some of the common leafy vegetables used in communities as herbs for ethnomedicine in treating as variety of diseases and also serves as staple nutritive vegetable.

This project is embarked upon due to the sustained use of scent leaf in traditional society. The research problem is that of attempt of investigating the presence of phytochemicals  composition in the Ocimum Gratissimum, Moringa Oleifera and Azadirachta Indica which may have satisfactorily encouraged their uses over the ages.

1. Aim and Objectives
2. To determine the qualitative analysis of constituents that make up the phytochemical in Ocimum Gratissimum, Moringa Oleifera and Azadirachta Indica leaves.
3. To carryout comparative analysis on the phytochemicals present in the leaves of the three plants.
   1. Scope of Study

This study focuses on the leaves Ocimum Gratissimum, Moringa Oleifera and Azadirachta Indica, there phytochemical contents.

CHARACTERIZATION AND UTILIZATION OF ACTIVATED TAMARIND KERNEL

CHARACTERIZATION AND UTILIZATION OF ACTIVATED TAMARIND KERNEL

ABSTRACT

Activated tamarind kernel powder was prepared from tamarind seed(Tamarindus indica);and utilized for the removal of Acid Red 1, Reactive Orange 20 and Reactive blue 29 dyes from their aqueous solutions. The powder was activated using 4M nitric acid (HNO₃). The effect of various parameters which include; pH, adsorbent dosage, ion concentration, and contact time were studied to identify the adsorption capacity of the activated tamarind kernel powder under the above conditions. The percentage of dye adsorbed is seen to be dependent on these factors. The result obtained indicated that the adsorption of Acid Red 1 (AR1), Reactive Orange 20 (RO20) and Reactive Blue 29 (RB29) decreased with increase in initial concentration but increased with increase in temperature. At equilibrium, all three dyes showed highest dye uptake at initial dye concentration of 20 mg/l, pH 2, adsorbent dose of 1.0 g, and at a contact time range of 80-100 min. The Langmuir, Freundlich, Temkin and Dubinin Radushkevichisotherm models measured at a temperature range of 298-328K are fitted into the graphs. The Temkin isotherm model is best-fitted into the experimental data with R² values ranging between 0.913-0.987 for Acid Red 1, 0.865-0.969 for Reactive Orange 20 and 0.942-0.992 for Reactive Blue 29. The next in line for best fitting is the Langmuir isotherm with R² values ranging between 0.859-0.995 for Acid Red 1 dye, 0.825-0.974 for Reactive Orange 20 and 0.971-0.989 for Reactive Blue 29. This is followed by Dubinin Radushkevich isotherm with R² values ranging between 0.931-0.974 for Acid Red 1, 0.923-0.989 for Reactive Orange 20 and 0.789-0.923 for Reactive Blue 29. Lastly is the Freundlich isotherm with R² values ranging between 0.803-0.931 for Acid Red 1, 0.856-0.964 for Reactive Orange 20 and 0.982-0.995 for Reactive Blue 29. The pseudo-first order and pseudo-second order kinetic models were also fitted into the graphs, but pseudo-second order was best fitted into the experimental data. The thermodynamic parameters such as enthalpy, entropy,andfreeenergywhichweredeterminedusingtheVan‘tHoffequationswerefoundto

provide the clues necessary to predict the nature of the adsorption process. The values of the activation energy (E_A) obtained indicated that the adsorption of AR1, RO20 and RB29 on activated tamarind kernel powder (ATKP) is a physical process.The negative free energy (ΔG) indicatedthat the adsorption process is feasible and spontaneous, the negative enthalpy (ΔH) indicatedthat the reaction is exothermic in nature and the negative entropy (ΔS) indicated that there is decreased randomness at the solid/solution interphase during the adsorption process. The chemical functional groups of the ATKP adsorbent were studied by Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy which helped in the identification of possible adsorption sites on the adsorbent surface. Characterization of the activated tamarind kernel powder which was carried out using standard methods, showed that the values of the parameters of interest such as moisture and dry matter content, ash content, pH and bulk density; fall within acceptable range. Therefore, activated tamarind kernel powder has proven to be a very good adsorbent for the removal of acid dyes and reactive dyes.

CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION

1.1               Background of Study

Environmental pollution control is said to be a matter of utmost concern in many countries. However, air and water pollution constitute the major environmental pollution in several countries. Consequently, open burning leads to air pollution, while industrial effluent and domestic sewage leads to water pollution. Water pollution results to bad effects on public water supplies which can cause health problem, while air pollution can cause lung diseases, burning eyes, cough, and chest tightness. The environmental issues surrounding the presence of colour in effluent is a continuous problem for dye stuff manufacturers, dyers, finishers, and water companies (Kesari etal., 2011).

The contaminants such as dyes, heavy metal, cyanide, toxic organics, nitrogen, phosphorus, phenols, suspended solids, colour, and turbidity from industries and untreated sewage sludge from domestics, are becoming of great concern to the environmental and public health. Therefore, the treatment of these pollutants is very important (Cheremisinoff, 1993).

Residual dyes from different sources (e.g., textile industries, paper and pulp industries, dye and dye intermediates industries, pharmaceutical industries, tannery, and Kraft bleaching industries and others) are considered a wide variety of organic pollutants introduced into the natural water resources or wastewater treatment systems. One of the main sources with severe pollution problems worldwide is the textile industry and its dye-containing wastewaters (i.e. 10,000 different textile dyes with an estimated annual production of 7.105 metric tonnes are commercially available worldwide; 30% of these dyes are used in excess of 1,000 tonnes per annum, and 90% of the textile products are used at the level of 100 tonnes per annum or less) (Baban et al., 2010; Robinson et al., 2001; Soloman et al., 2009). About 10-25% of textile dyes are lost during the dyeing process, and 2-20% is directly discharged as aqueous effluents

in different environmental components. In particular, the discharge of dye-containing effluents into the water environment is undesirable, not only because of their colour, but also because many of the dyes released and their breakdown products are toxic, carcinogenic or mutagenic to life forms mainly because of carcinogens, such as benzidine, naphthalene and other aromatic compounds (Suteu et al., 2009; Zaharia et al., 2009). Without adequate treatment these dyes can remain in the environment for a long period of time. For instance, the half-life of hydrolysed Reactive Blue 19 is about 46 years at pH 7 and 298 K (Haoet al., 2000).

In addition to the aforementioned problems, the textile industry consumes large amounts of potable and industrial water as processing water (90-94%) and a relatively low percentage as cooling water (6-10%) in comparison with the chemical industry where only 20% is used as process water and the rest for cooling. The recycling of treated wastewater has been recommended due to the high levels of contamination in dyeing and finishing processes (i.e. dyes and their breakdown products, pigments, dyeintermediates, auxiliary chemicals and heavy metals, and others(Bertea and Bertea, 2008; Bisschops and Spanjers, 2003; Correia et al., 1994; Orhon et al., 2001).

Synthetic dyes have been increasing in textile industries for dyeing natural and synthetic fibres. Discharge of dye- bearing waste-water makes an adverse effect on aquatic environment because the dyes give water undesirable colour (Ibrahim et al., 2010) and reduce light penetration and photosynthesis (Al-Degs et al., 2004; Wang et al., 2005; Oei et al., 2009). Conventional methods used to treat coloured effluents are oxidation, coagulation and flocculation, biological treatment, membrane filtration. However, the single conventional treatment is unable to remove certain forms of colour, particularly those arising from reactive dyes as a result of their high solubility and low biodegradability (Vijayaraghavan et al., 2009).

1.2               Statement of Research Problem

One of the major problems concerning textile and leather wastewaters is coloured effluent (Ramakrishna, et al; 1997). This wastewater contains a variety of organic compounds and toxic substances, which are harmful to fish and other aquatic organisms. Dyes even in low concentrations affect the aquatic life and food web. Since many organic dyes are harmful to human beings, the removal of colour from process or waste effluents becomes environmentally important. Due to the large degree of organics present in these molecules and the stability of modern dyes, conventional physicochemical and biological treatment methods are ineffective for their removal (Mckay,1995).

1.3               Justification for the Research

Activated carbon is a widely used adsorbent due to its high adsorption capacity, high surface area, microporous structure, and high degree of surface reactivity, but there are some problems associated with its use,it is expensive and regeneration results in a 10–15% loss of adsorbent and its uptake capacity and therefore this adds to the operational costs. This led to a search for cheaper, easily obtainable materials for the adsorption of dye from industrial effluent (Waranusantigulet al., 2003). As a result, the use of natural waste products and plants has increased considerably during the past years for pollution control applications (Kumar et al., 2009).

Tamarind Kernel is a biological waste material which is readily available and relatively cheap. It can be collected and powdered. (Shanthi and Mahalakshmi,2012).It has excellent potential for the removal of dye from coloured effluent (Patel and Vashi, 2010).TKP has been used to remove dyes from the binary mixture of their aqueous solution (Shanthi and Mahalakshmi,2012).It has also found excellent application in the reduction of Chemical oxygen demand (COD), Total dissolved solids; Sulphates and Turbidity from diary waste water (Shobaet al.,2015).

1.4               Aim and Objectives

The aim of this research is to characterize and utilize Activated Tamarind Kernel Powder (ATKP) in the treatment of Industrial wastewater.

This aim will be achieved by the following objectives:

1. To isolate, carbonize and activate the tamarind kernelpowder

1. To determine some physicochemical parameters which include pH, contact time, adsorbent dose and initial concentration of the ATKP adsorbent
2. To run the FTIR Spectra of the activated ATKP adsorbent before and after treatment with Acid Red 1, Reactive Orange 20 and Reactive Blue 29 (AR1, RO20 and RB29) in order to identify the functional groups responsible for the adsorption of each dye molecule unto the ATKP surface
3. To analyse the effect of Initial concentration, Initial pH, Contact time, Adsorbent dose and operating Temperature in order to determine the optimum conditions for maximum adsorption of the dyes (AR1, RO20 and RB29) from their aqueous solutions
4. To examine the adsorption efficiency of ATKP for AR1, RO20 and RB29 by analysing the adsorption isotherms (Langmuir, Freundlich, Temkin and Dubinin- Radushkevich)
5. To examine the rate of adsorption by studying the adsorption Kinetics (Lagagren Pseudo-First order and Pseudo-Secondorder)
6. To examine the spontaneity of adsorption of AR1, RO20 and RB29 on ATKP through the determination of the thermodynamics parameters (Standard Gibbs free energy, Activation Energy, Enthalpy andEntropy)

THE ANALYTICAL SIGNIFICANCE OF COPPER SCHIFF BASE COMPLEXES

THE ANALYTICAL SIGNIFICANCE OF COPPER SCHIFF BASE COMPLEXES

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1   Meaning of Schiff Base

        Schiff bases are condensation products of primary amines and carbonyl compounds, such as aldehyde or ketone. Schiff base was discovered by a German chemist Hugo Schiff in 1864. Schiff bases are considered as one of the most popular families of organic compounds which are used as synthetic intermediates as well as quite helpful in the establishment of coordination chemistry (Gemi, 2004).

        Schiff bases are considsed as a very important class of organic compounds, having wide applications in many biological aspects, proteins, visual pigments, enzymic aldolization and delarboxylation reactions. More over some Schiff bases and their metal complexes exhibits antibiotic, antiviral and antitumor agents. They are used as catelysts in polymer and dye industries, beside some uses as antifertility and enzymatic agents. An interesting application of Schiff base is their use as an effective corrosion  inhibitor, which is based  on their ability to spontaneously form a monolarger on the surface to be protected, Schiff  bases are also

R1 called imines, and they contain carbon nitrogen R double  bond ( C=N-R) (Ozaslen et al, 2011). Due to the physico chemical properties of Schiff bases, they have played a very important role as chelating ligands for transition metal and for the development of coordination chemistry. Since they have flexible nature and easily proton donating property, the study of Schiff bases and their complexes with transition metals, lathanides and radioactive metals has flourished since few decides. Schiff base ligand shows a number of sites for binding that lead to higher coordination polyhedral and cause greater kinetor and thermodynamic stability (A Shral et al, 2001).

1.2   Meaning of Copper Schiff Base Complex

        Schiff bases are varstatile Ligants and when they undergo coordinate covalent bonding with a transition metal such as copper a copper –Schiff base complexes are formed.

        The Schiff bases has ability to donate core  pair of electron  to the central  metal which is copper, in other to form a complex or coordination compound. Some of the Schiff base has the ability to donate pairs of electron to the copper hence they are called tridentate ligand, those that can donate four pairs of electron are called tetradentate ligand and vice versa. Copper Schiff bases have wide applications in food industry, dye industry, analytical chemistry, catelysis, agrochemical, fungicidal, anti-inflammable activity, anti radical activity and biological activities (Barboin, 2006).

        Schiff base complexes are considered to be among the most important sterer chemical models in main group and transition metal coordination chemistry due to their preparative accessibility and structural variety. Copper (11) Complexes shows distorted octahedral and tetrahedral symmetries due to d9 configuration. The distortion is usually seen as axil elongation consistent with the liability and geometric flexibility of the complex (Gemi, 2004).

        Therefore typical copper (II) complexes have square planer or square pyramidal geometries with weakly associated ligand in the axial position, but some copper (II) complexes possess regional bipyramidal geometry. The fundamental role of copper and the recognition of its complexes as important bioactivities compounds in vitro and in vivo aroused an ever-increasing interest in these agents as potential drugs for therapeutic intervention in various diseases (Jesmi and Ali, 2010).

        A considerable number of Schiff bases copper complexes have potential biological interest, being used as more or less successful models of biological compounds. Not only they have played a seminal role in the development of modern coordination chemistry, but also they can be found at key points in the development of inorganic biochemistry, Catalysis and optical materials (Kumer et al, 2009).

1.3   Uses of Schiff Bases and their Metal Complexes

        The Schiff base ligands and their metal complexes have special importance in the field of coordination chemistry. A survey of the literature shows that, in recent times, increasing number of studies has been devoted to the synthesis and structural studies. However, the utility aspects of the Schiff bases and their metal complexes have received their share of attention with an all round progress in the field of coordination chemistry. The importance of Schiff bases and their metal complexes with transition metals have been well emphasized by several researchers.

1.4   Analytical Applications

        The Schiff bases have remarkable property of forming complexes and serve as excellent chelating ligands. Due to their ligational property they have been extensively used as analytical reagents. Schiff bases formed from salicylaldehyde are used in gravimetric analysis and spectrophotometric determination. For example, the Schiff bases derived from ethylenediamine forms an insoluble complex with Ni (II), which has been used for its gravimetric determination. Also, the same reagent has been used recently for the spectrophotometric determination of Ni (II) at trace level.

Biological Importance

        The active functional group of Schiff bases is azomethine (-HC=N-) and its importance has been studied in bio-chemistry. Its biological importance has been studied in the fields of fungicides and insecticides21. Also, the intermediate of the azomethine group shows biological importance in large number of enzymatic reactions. These compounds exhibit many physiological activities. They are found to be useful as plant growth regulants and as an anti-coagulating materials.

1.5   Objective of the Study

        The main objective of this study is to analyse Schiff base and its complexes have a variety of application including biological, chemical and analytical. Earlier work has shown that some drugs showed increase activity when administrated as metal chalets rather than as organic compounds.

1.6   Materials and Methodology

        Chemicals used for this work like substituted hydroxyl benzaldehyde , hydrazine hydrate, diethyl malonate , metal salts , Ethanol, chloroform, methanol, distilled water, Acetone cobalt standard, Nickel standard etc were of analytical grade.

1.7   Apparatus and Instruments

        The apparatus used in this project are melting point apparatus, condenser, heating mantle, round bottom flask, rotary evaporator, beakers, measuring cylinder, ice bath, desiccators, suction pump, funnel, filter paper, stirrer etc.

ANTIBIOTIC RESISTANCE PROFILE OF ESCHERICHIA COLI ISOLATED FROM APPARENTLY HEALTHY DOMESTIC LIVESTOCK

ANTIBIOTIC RESISTANCE PROFILE OF ESCHERICHIA COLI ISOLATED FROM APPARENTLY HEALTHY DOMESTIC LIVESTOCK

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1       Background of the Study

Antibiotic usage is possibly the most important factor that promotes the emergence, selection and dissemination of antibiotic-resistant microorganisms in both veterinary and human medicine (Daniels et al., 2009). This acquired resistance occurs not only in pathogenic bacteria but also in the endogenous flora of exposed individuals (animals and humans). In intensively reared food animals, antibiotics may be administered to whole flocks rather than individual animals, and antimicrobial agents may be continuously fed to food animals such as poultry, goats, and cattle as growth promoters. Therefore, the antibiotic selection pressure for bacterial drug resistance in the animal is high and invariably their faecal flora contains a relatively high proportion of resistant bacteria (Whitworth et al., 2008; Literal et al., 2010).

The mechanism for spreading antibiotic resistance from animals to humans and vice versa remains controversial. Colonization of the intestinal tract with resistant Escherichia coli from chicken has been shown in human volunteers and there is historical evidence that animals are a reservoir for E. coli found in humans (Akwar et al., 2008; Kikuvi et al., 2010). Furthermore, 0spread of antibiotic resistance plasmids in E. coli from chickens to human handlers or of antibiotics – resistant microorganisms from animal to humans in various countries has been reported (Fang et al., 2008).

Resistance has been found in organisms common to both humans and animals, such as E. coli, Salmonella spp., Campylobacter spp. and Enterococcus among others (Davis et al., 2009). Due to the intricate balance of microflora of different habitats within the ecosystem, the transfer of resistance genes among bacteria occupying different habitats has the potential to occur frequently.

Resistance genes may be transferred vertically among bacteria of different genera and families or horizontally among different bacterial species within the same genus or family (Call et al., 2008). Widespread reliance on antimicrobials in food animal production has resulted in a considerable rise of antimicrobial-resistant strains of bacteria, complicating the treatment of infectious diseases in livestock, companion animals, and humans. This has led to important changes in the perceptions and priorities of regulatory agencies with regard to antimicrobial usage, particularly the use of antimicrobials as growth promoters and prophylactic agents. The selective pressure from the use of antimicrobial agents at sub therapeutic levels in dairy cattle could result in the selection of those strains that contain genes for antimicrobial resistance (Call et al., 2008).

1.2       Statement of problem

Molecular tools have been used to correlate animal associated pathogens with similar pathogens affecting humans and to clearly demonstrate transferable resistant genes carried by plasmids common to both animals and humans (Pitout et al., 2009; Ahmed et al., 2010). The possibility of antibiotic resistance genes circulating among humans, animals and the environment constitutes a direct threat to public health. This threat prompts research into emerging resistance mechanisms, novel approaches to antimicrobial efficacy and stringent control measures in the prudent use of antimicrobials in animal medicine.

In the developed world, the extensive use of antibiotics in agriculture, especially for prophylactic and growth promoting purposes, has generated much debate as to whether this practice contributes significantly to increased frequencies and dissemination of resistance genes into other ecosystems. In developing countries like Nigeria, antibiotics are used only when necessary, especially if the animals fall sick, and only the sick ones are treated in such cases. However, even in the absence of heavy use of antibiotics it is important to identify and monitor susceptibility profiles of bacterial isolates, particularly of commensal organisms. This, according to John and Fishman (1997), will provide information on resistance trends including emerging antibiotic resistance which are essential for clinical practice.

1.3       Aim of the study

The aim of this study is to investigate the antibiotic resistance profile of E. coli isolates from apparently healthy domestic livestock.

1.4       Objectives of the study

            The specific objectives of the study include:

1. To determine the antibiotic resistance profile for E. coli strains from the selected livestock
2. To determine comparative resistance rates for E. coli strains from the different livestock

1.5       Scope of the Study

The scope of this study is limited to the investigation of antibiotics resistance profile of Eschirichia coli isolated from apparently healthy domestic livestock with particular interest in cattle, goats, swine and chicken in the absence of extensive use of antibiotics for both prophylaxis and growth promotion.