DETERMINATION OF HEAVY METALS IN SOME SELECTED VEGETABLES IRRIGATED WITH POLLUTED WATER IN KABALA WEST AREA OF KADUNA STATE

DETERMINATION OF HEAVY METALS IN SOME SELECTED VEGETABLES IRRIGATED WITH POLLUTED WATER IN KABALA WEST AREA OF KADUNA STATE

ABSTRACT

This study was carried out to assess the levels of different heavy metals such as Lead, Cadmium and Zinc in Vegetables like cabbage, lettuce, spinach, Bitter leaf and pumpkin irrigated with polluted water in different farms in Kabala West area of Kaduna state, the concentrations of the heavy metals were determined using Atomic absorption spectrophotometric analysis, the result shows that lead (2.130-9.075 mg/kg), Cadmium (1.365-1.735 mg/kg) and Zinc (2.720-6.765 mg/kg) were detected in all the samples except for Zinc which was not detected in lettuce and cabbage. The concentration of lead (9.075 mg/kg) detected in spinach was the highest and that of cadmium (1.365 mg/kg) detected in bitter-leaf was the lowest in all the samples analyzed. The result also indicated that Lead and cadmium detected in all the samples analyzed in this project were above the permissible limit of (0.3 mg/kg) and (0.10 mg/kg) respectively with the exception of Zinc which was below the permissible limit of (100 mg/kg) set by FAO/WHO in 2001.

CHAPTER ONE

1.0     INTRODUCTION

The consumption of vegetables as food offer rapid and least means of providing adequate vitamins, supply minerals and fibers. Vegetables that are used as food include those used in making soups or served as integral parts of the main sources of a meal. Leafy vegetables occupy a very important place in the human diet (Zurera et al., 1999), but unfortunately constitute a group of food which contributes maximally to nitrate and other anions as well as heavy metal consumption. Heavy metals deposition are associated with a wide range of sources such as small scale industries (including battery, Metal smelting and cable coating industries); vehicular emissions, and diesel generator sets. Heavy metals such as cadmium, lead and zinc are important environmental pollutant, particularly in areas where vegetables are irrigated with waste water, consumption of vegetables such as spinach, cabbage, lettuce, Bitter leaf and pumpkin by humans and animals pose serious health hazards, Although some heavy metals as Lead, Cadmium and Magnesium are important in plant nutrition,   many of them do not play any significant role in the plant’s physiology. The uptake of these heavy metals especially into the human food chain is done through these leafy vegetables and they have harmful effects on health (Jarup, 2003).

Vegetables act as neutralizing agents for acidic substances formed during digestion, as human activities increases especially with the application of modern technology, pollution and contamination of human food chain has become inevitable. Heavy metals cannot be underestimated as these food stuffs are important components of human diet, they are very rich and comparatively cheaper sources of vitamins, Consumption of these items provides taste and palatability increases appetite and provides fibre for digestion and prevent constipation (Agrawal, 2011). Heavy metal contamination of food item is one of the most important aspect of food quality assurance; International and national regulation on food qualities have lowered the maximum permissible levels of toxic metals in food items due to an increased awareness of the risk these metals pose to food chain contamination.

Rapid and Unorganized industrialization and   Urbanization has contributed to the elevated levels of metals in the urban environment in developing countries, Heavy metal are non bio- degradable and persistent environmental contaminants which may deposited on the surfaces and then absorbed into the tissues of the vegetables; Plants take up heavy metals by absorbing them from deposits on the parts of the plant exposed to the polluted water (Amoah, 2008) Waste water from industries of mining electroplating paints or chemical laboratories often contains high concentrations of heavy metals, These elements at concentration exceeding the physiological demand of vegetables, not only could administer toxic effects in them but also could enter food chain, get biomagnified and pose a potential threat to human health. Heavy metal contamination in agricultural soils from waste water irrigation is of serious concern due to its implications on human health.

1.1            EFFECTS OF HEAVY METALS ON HUMAN HEALTH

Small amounts of heavy metals are needed in our environment and diet and are actually necessary for good health, but large amount of any of them may cause acute or chronic toxicity (poisoning). Heavy metal toxicity can result in damaged or reduced mental and central nervous function, lower energy levels and damage to blood composition, lungs, kidneys, liver, and other vital organs. Long term exposure may result in slowly progressing physical, muscular, and neurological degenerative processes, allergies are not uncommon, and repeated long-term contact with some metals (or their compounds) may cause cancer (WHO, 2006). For some heavy metals, toxic levels can be just above the background concentrations naturally found in nature. Therefore, it is important to learn about heavy metals and take protective measures against excessive exposure. The association of symptoms indicative of acute toxicity is not difficult to recognize because they are usually severe, rapid in onset, and associated with a known ingestion or exposure. Symptoms include: cramping, nausea and vomiting; pain; sweating; headache difficulty in breathing impaired cognitive motor, and language skills, mania and convulsions symptoms of chronic exposure (impaired cognitive and language skills, learning difficulties; nervousness and emotional instability; and insomnia, nausea, lethargy, and feeling ill) are also usually recognized; however, they are much more difficult to associate with their cause(Jarup, 2003). Symptoms resulting from chronic exposure are very similar to symptoms of other health conditions and often develop slowly over mouths or even years. Sometimes, symptoms of chronic exposure subside; thinking the symptoms are related to something else people postpone seeking treatment. (Khillare et al., 2004).

1.2            BENEFITS OF HEAVY METALS

In small quantities, certain heavy metals are nutritionally essential for a healthy life. Those elements, or some form of them, fruits and vegetables and in commercially available multivitamin products (WHO, 2006), this research work focuses on vegetables because it is widely consumed in Nigeria, so it is important to know about their relationship with heavy metals. Diagnostic medical application include direct injection of gallium during radio logical procedures dosing with chromium in parent nutrition mixtures, and the use of lead as x-ray shield (Jassir, M.S., et al , 2005). Heavy metals are also common in industrial applications such as the manufacture of pesticides, batteries, alloys, electroplated metal parts, textile dyes, steel, and so forth (WHO, 2006). Many of these products are in our homes and add to the quality of life when properly used.  

1.3            AIMS AND OBJECTIVES

         The aim of this project work is to determine heavy metals in some selected vegetables in Kabala West, Kaduna, Nigeria..

Objectives

·                    The objective of this work is to ascertain the level of heavy metals in analyzed samples

·                    To determine the concentration of heavy metals in the selected vegetables

1.4            SCOPE OF WORK

The scope of this project work covers the determination of the presence of heavy metals in vegetables grown in kabala west area of Kaduna state, and also to determine the various concentrations of the heavy metals in the selected vegetables.

JUSTIFICATION

         Previous projects have been carried out to ascertain different levels of heavy metals in soil and water samples, but this project specifically targets heavy metals in vegetables grown and irrigated with polluted water in Kabala area of Kaduna state.

THE EFFECT OF PLASMA DIETARY CONTROL OF AKALINE PHOSPHATASE AND PROTEIN LEVEL IN RATS

THE EFFECT OF PLASMA DIETARY CONTROL OF AKALINE PHOSPHATASE AND PROTEIN LEVEL IN RATS

ABSTRACT

This project research estimated the effect of Acid-base diet on plasma concentration (Alkaline Phosphatase and total protein level) in rat. The rats were induced with acidosis and alkalosis by supplementation of their diets. The level of Alkaline phosphatase and total protein were determined using colorimetric method and selectra-proS automated machine respectively, the results obtained for the ALP from the Acidotic groups were 334.7 ± 5.91, 294.2 ± 3.57, 436.2 ± 16.10 and those induced alkalosis were 209 ± 2.50, 162.1 ± 3.04 and 302.8 ± 2.80 and that of a control group is 198.7 ± 1.37 all measured in iu/L. the result of total protein obtained are 7.51 ± 0.17, 6.87 ± 0.25 and 6.47 ± 0.15 for the group induced acidosis and 6.43 ± 0.17, 7.76 ± 0.17 all measured in g/dL for the control group. The ALP level of the group supplemented with acidifying agent increases above normal level when compared to the normal range. And the group supplemented with alkalizing agent increases too but the values are within the normal range (60 – 270 ui/L ). The total protein level in groups induced with acidosis compared to control shows no significant difference (p>0.05) and so also the group induced with alkalosis but all the value are within the normal range (6.0-8.0g/dL). Therefore composition of diet can strongly affect acid and base balance thereby elevating ALP level in plasma and does not significantly affect total protein level.

CHAPTER ONE

1.0       Introduction

1.1       Background of the study

Life on earth depends on appropriate pH levels in and around living organism and cells. Human life requires a lightly controlled pH level in the serum of about 7.4 (a slightly alkaline range of 7.35 to 7.45 to survive (Waugh et al 2007).

As comparism, in the past 100 years with increasing industrialization; the pH of the ocean was dropped from 8.2 to 8.1 because of increase in carbon dioxide deposition. This has a negative compact on life in the ocean as described by (Waugh et al 2007) and (University, Brimingham 2010) and may lead to the collapse of the coral reefs confirmed (Hoegh-Guldberg, et al., 2007). Even the pH of the soil in which plants are grown can have considerable influence on the mineral content of the food we eat (as minerals are used as buffers to maintain pH. The ideal pH of soil for the best overall availability of essential nutrients is between 6 and 7. Acidic soil below pH of 6 may have reduced calcium and magnesium and soil above pH 7 may result to chemically unavailable iron, manganese, copper, zinc. Adding dolomite and  manure are ways of raising pH in an acid soil environment when the pH is below 6 (Dam-ampai, et al., 2005).

When it comes to the pH and not acid load in the human diet, there has been considerable change from the hunter-gather civilization to the present (Strohle, et al., 2010). With agricultural revolution (last 10,000) years and even more recently with industrialization (last 200 years), there has been decrease in Potassium (K) compared to Sodium (Na) and an increase in Chloride compared to bicarbonate found in the diet (Sebastain, et al., 2002).

1.2       Acid and base homeostasis

Acid-Base homeostasis is the part of human of homeostasis concerning the proper balance between acids and bases, also called pH. The body is very sensitive to its pH level, so strong mechanisms exist to maintain it outside the acceptance range of pH, proteins are denature and digested, enzymes lose their ability to function and death may occur (Caroline, et a.,l 2013).

The body’s acid-base balance is normally tightly regulated by buffering agents, the respiratory system and the renal system and the renal system, keeping the arterial blood pH between 7.38 and 7.42 (Medline Plus and Caroline, Nancy 2013).

Several buffering agents that reversibly bind hydrogen ions and impede any change in pH exist. Extracellular buffers include bicarbonate and Ammonia, whereas Proteins and Phosphate act as intercellular buffers, the relationship between multiple buffers in the same solution is described by the Isohydric principle. The bicarbonate buffering system is especially key as carbon dioxide (CO₂) can be shifted through carbonic acid (H₂CO₃) to hydrogen ions and bicarbonate (HCO^–₃) as shown below

H₂O + CO₂                       H₂CO₃                               H⁺ + HCO^–₃

(Garrett, et al.,2010)

Acid-Base imbalance that overcomes the buffer system can be compensated in the short term by changing the rate of ventilation. This alters the concentration of carbon dioxide in blood, shifting the above reaction according to Le Chatelier’s principle, which in turn alters the pH. For instance, it the blood pH drops too low (acidemia), the body will compensate by increasing breathing (medical encyclopedia metabolic acidosis) thereby expelling CO₂ and shifting the above reaction to the left such that fewer hydrogen ions are free, thus the pH will rise back to normal for alkaline, the opposite occurs. (Waugh, et a.,l 2007).

The kidneys are shower to compensate, but renal physiology has several powerful mechanisms to control pH by the excretion of excess acid or base. In response to acidosis, tubular cells reabsorb more bicarbonate from the tabular fluid, collecting duct cells secret more hydrogen and generate more bicarbonate, and Ammoniagenesis leads to increased formation of the NH₃ buffer. In responses to alkalosis, the kidney may excrete more bicarbonate by decreasing hydrogen ion secretion from the tabular epithelical cells, and lowering rate of glutamine metabolism and ammonia excretion (caroline,et al.,2013).

1.3       Acid – base imbalance

Acid – base imbalance occurs when a significant result causes the blood pH to shift out of the normal range (7.35 – 7.45). in fetus, the normal range differs based on which umbilical vessel is sampled (Umbilical vein pH is normally 7.25 – 7.45; umbilical artery pH is normally (7.18 – 7.38) an excess of acid in the blood is called alkaline or base in the blood is called alkalemia. The process that causes the imbalance is classified based on the etiology of the disturbance (respiratory or alkalosis). These are four basic processes. Metabolic acidosis, respiratory acidosis, metabolic alkalosis and respiratory alkalosis one or a combination may occur at any given time (Yeomans et al., 1985).

1.4       History

The role of the diet and its influence on the acidity of urine has been studied for decades, as physiologists have studied the kidney’s role in the body as regulatory mechanisms for controlling the acidity of body fluids. The French biologist Claude Bernard provided the classical observation of this effect when he found that changing the diet of rabbits from an herbivore (mainly plant) diet to a carnivore (mainly meat) diet changed the urine from more alkaline to more acid. Spurred by these observations, subsequent investigations focused on the chemical properties and acidity of constituents of the remains of foods combusted in a bomb calorimeter, described as ash the “dietary ash hypothesis” proposed that these foods, when metabolized, would leave a similar “acid ash” or “alkaline ash” in the body as those oxidized in combustion (Dwyer , et al., 1985).

Nutrition scientists began to refine this hypothesis in the early 20^th century, emphasizing the role of negatively charged particles (anions) in food. Diets high in chloride, phosphates and sulfates (all of which are anions) were presumed to be acid forming while diets high in potassium, calcium and magnesium (all of which are cations) were presumed to be alkaline forming. Other investigations showed specific foods, such as cranberries, prunes and plums had unusual effects on urine pH. While these foods provided an alkaline ash in the laboratory, they contained a weak organic acid, hippuric acid, which caused the urine to become more acidic instead (Dwyer, 2008).

1.5       Aim and objectives

Aim

This study is aimed at determining the effect of dietary management on the blood pH in albino wistar rat.

Objectives of the study

• To determine the effect of diet (Alkaline-acid) on alkaline phosphatase.
• To determine the effect of acid-base diet on total protein level.

1.6       Statement of problem

Diet and its effect on blood pH is an important public health challenge worldwide. Most people in the world have little or non-dietary life style without knowing the health implication, an alkaline diet also known as the alkaline ash diet, (alkaline acid diet, acid ash diet and the acid alkaline diet). Describe a group of loosely related diets on the belief that certain foods eaten can affect the acidity and pH of bodily fluids including the urine or blood, the diet and acid-base homeostasis, or the regulation of acid-base status of the body has been studied for decades, though the medical application of this hypothesis have largely focused on changing the acidity of urine, traditionally. This diet has advocated for avoiding meat, poultry, cheese, and grains in order to make urine more alkaline to prevent urinary tracts infections and kidney stones (nephrolithiasis). Acid ash has been considered as a risk factor for osteoporosis (Vangsness, et a.,l 2014).

Various risk factors that have been implicated in etiology (study of causation or origination) of blood pH is nutritional factor, poor nutritional lifestyle can cause accumulation of acid or alkaline in the blood which leads to acidemia or alkalemia respectively and also can leads to other health illness or problem, in this study, will show how diet affects the body homeostasis or blood pH, which may leads to increase or decrease in ALP and total serum protein thereby causing the body buffering system to over work itself which may cause the body system to illness health or certain diseases and causing an imbalance of the body fluids.

1.7       Scope of study

The study described in this project deal with toxicological implications of diet in blood pH in rat in other word looking into dietary modulation of the acid-base balance in rat. For this purpose the effects of a dietary load of acid or base induced changes is considered in this study and the effect of disturbances in the acid-base balance on plasma parameter routinely used in toxicity studies, to fill in this gap in knowledge, short and long-term toxicity studies were performed in rat feel with acidifying and alkalizing diets. And how these diet causes plasma parameters such as alkaline phosphate and total protein normality or abnormality in the blood.

1.8       Significance of study

The study of dietary management is very important in the sense that it enables one to identify the effect of acid-base forming diets on physiological pH, since many foods are alkaline-producing or neutral in nature but manufactured, processed foods are mostly acid producing, in other to maintain good health what one eat matters too, the body maintain correct pH in the blood at all cost by homeostasis but that is stressful for the body’s system and resources when diet is imbalance in terms of acid forming foods. These changes in alkalinity or acidity are caused by diet and lifestyle.

1.9       Limitation of the study

In carrying out this research, the researcher encountered some challenges. Urine pH, autopsy of the brain and NH₄⁺ concentration was supposed to be achieved but due to the problem encountered the researcher failed to achieve this. Some of the constraints encountered in the course of carrying out this research include;

• Lack of adequate finance
• Time constraints
• Inadequate materials in the library
• Also the epileptic power supply and
• Inconsistent availability of network posed problem. But the researcher was to gather enough material to justify the validity of the research.

PHYTOCHEMICAL SCREENING AND PROXIMATE ANALYSIS OF THE ROOT, LEAVES, FLOWERS AND LATEX JUICE OF Calotropis Procera

PHYTOCHEMICAL SCREENING AND PROXIMATE ANALYSIS OF THE ROOT, LEAVES, FLOWERS AND LATEX JUICE OF Calotropis Procera

CHAPTER ONE

1.0                                                       INTRODUCTION

1.1       Background of the Study

Plant derived substances have obtained greater attention in the recent years to prevent and cure human diseases as they are considered to be more biofriendly. It is generally estimated that over 6000 plants in Africa are in use in traditional folk and herbal medicine, representing about 75% of the medicinal needs of the third world countries (Veerachari and Bopaiah, 2011). According to Okoli et al (2007), traditional society in Africa has always used herbs to promote healing. A large body of evidence has accumulated to demonstrate the promising potentials of medicinal plants used in various traditional, complementary and alternate systems of treatments of human diseases (Alam, 2008).

The World Health Organisation in 1991 estimated that 70% of population from many countries are using traditional medicine to cure various ailments. Therefore, the useful products obtained from plants directly or indirectly, demonstrate their importance to man. Plants serve as a source of food (Katsayal et al., 2004; Kawo, 2007), medicinal product (Kawo et al., 2009), energy (Kawo, 2010) and shelter to man and his livestock (Ogunkunle and Oladele, 2004). Calotropis Procera is a weed plant commonly known as “apple of Sodom”. The plant belongs to Apocynaceae family which includes latex bearing plants. It is a small to medium-sized shrub, up to 5.5 m high and occasionally branchless to a height of 2.5 m. The bark is fibrous, scaly, deeply fissured when old, grey to light brown. All parts of the plant exude white latex when cut or broken. It is locally known as ‘tumfafiya’ in Hausa, its other local names are madar, akanda and arks (Noatay, 2005). The Yorubas of western Nigeria call it ‘Bomubomu’ and the Kanuri of northwestern Nigeria know it as ‘Kayou’. It is a plant of the dry savanna and other arid areas, mostly anthropogene occurring around villages (Aliyu, 2006). The only two species of this genus are Calotropis gigantea and Calotropis Procera. The main difference between the two is that while Calotropis gigantea has white flowers, Calotropis Procera has pinkish white flowers (Noatay, 2005).

 In the last few decades, Calotropis Procera is extensively studied for its medicinal properties by advanced scientific techniques and a variety of bioactive compounds have been isolated from the different parts of the plant and were analyzed pharmacologically. The plant is reported for analgesic activity, antimicrobial activity, antioxidant activity, anti-pyretic activity, insecticidal activity, cytotoxicity activity, hepatoprotective activity, pregnancy interceptive properties, purgative properties, procoagulant activity and wound healing activity. The medicinal properties of this plant represent it as a valuable source of medicinal compound (Kumar et al. 2016).

Different parts of Calotropis Procera have been reported to exhibit ethnomedicinal and nutritional properties. In addition, preparations from the latex with honey are used as antibodies and also in the treatment of toothaches and cough (Aworh et al., 2004). The leaf extract, chopped leaf and latex of Calotropis Procera have shown great promise as both in-vivo and invitro nematicides (Anver and Alam, 2012). Awune and Debray (2000) have earlier reported that though the leaf of Calotropis Procera is not known to be eaten by man as food, it is however taken as purgative and diuretic in Ivory Coast.

1.2       Statement of Problem

Calotropis Procera is a plant which is considered as a traditional means of curing or treating some ailments such as fever, rheumatism, indigestion, cold, eczema and diarrhoea but there has not been enough analysis on its phytochemical and proximate constituents in order to ascertain if it can be used for development of drugs as it is not taken as food into the body. This study therefore, will bring about knowledge on its chemical constituents as well as other chemical benefits to enable good use of the plant.

1.3       Aim and Objectives

The aim of this research work is to carry out phytochemical screening and proximate analysis of the root, leaves, flowers and latex juice of Calotropis Procera.

The Objectives are:

1. Extraction from the various parts of the plant.
2. To perform phytochemical screening on the various extracts of the plant.
3. To determine the proximate composition (moisture content, ash content, crude lipid, fat, protein and carbohydrate).
4. To compare the parts statistically.

 1.5      Significance of the Study

This study is important because, its knowledge will give enough information on what the plant contains and possibly serve as a medium for production of medicinal products using the plant as a raw material.

1.6       Scope of the Study

This research work focuses on the phytochemical (flavonoids, anthocyanidins, steroids, saponins, anthraquinones, tannins, cardiac glycosides and alkaloids) and proximate analysis of flower latex juice, leaves and root of calotropis Procera plant.

CHARACTERIZATION AND UTILIZATION OF ACTIVATED TAMARIND KERNEL

CHARACTERIZATION AND UTILIZATION OF ACTIVATED TAMARIND KERNEL

ABSTRACT

Activated tamarind kernel powder was prepared from tamarind seed(Tamarindus indica);and utilized for the removal of Acid Red 1, Reactive Orange 20 and Reactive blue 29 dyes from their aqueous solutions. The powder was activated using 4M nitric acid (HNO₃). The effect of various parameters which include; pH, adsorbent dosage, ion concentration, and contact time were studied to identify the adsorption capacity of the activated tamarind kernel powder under the above conditions. The percentage of dye adsorbed is seen to be dependent on these factors. The result obtained indicated that the adsorption of Acid Red 1 (AR1), Reactive Orange 20 (RO20) and Reactive Blue 29 (RB29) decreased with increase in initial concentration but increased with increase in temperature. At equilibrium, all three dyes showed highest dye uptake at initial dye concentration of 20 mg/l, pH 2, adsorbent dose of 1.0 g, and at a contact time range of 80-100 min. The Langmuir, Freundlich, Temkin and Dubinin Radushkevichisotherm models measured at a temperature range of 298-328K are fitted into the graphs. The Temkin isotherm model is best-fitted into the experimental data with R² values ranging between 0.913-0.987 for Acid Red 1, 0.865-0.969 for Reactive Orange 20 and 0.942-0.992 for Reactive Blue 29. The next in line for best fitting is the Langmuir isotherm with R² values ranging between 0.859-0.995 for Acid Red 1 dye, 0.825-0.974 for Reactive Orange 20 and 0.971-0.989 for Reactive Blue 29. This is followed by Dubinin Radushkevich isotherm with R² values ranging between 0.931-0.974 for Acid Red 1, 0.923-0.989 for Reactive Orange 20 and 0.789-0.923 for Reactive Blue 29. Lastly is the Freundlich isotherm with R² values ranging between 0.803-0.931 for Acid Red 1, 0.856-0.964 for Reactive Orange 20 and 0.982-0.995 for Reactive Blue 29. The pseudo-first order and pseudo-second order kinetic models were also fitted into the graphs, but pseudo-second order was best fitted into the experimental data. The thermodynamic parameters such as enthalpy, entropy,andfreeenergywhichweredeterminedusingtheVan‘tHoffequationswerefoundto

provide the clues necessary to predict the nature of the adsorption process. The values of the activation energy (E_A) obtained indicated that the adsorption of AR1, RO20 and RB29 on activated tamarind kernel powder (ATKP) is a physical process.The negative free energy (ΔG) indicatedthat the adsorption process is feasible and spontaneous, the negative enthalpy (ΔH) indicatedthat the reaction is exothermic in nature and the negative entropy (ΔS) indicated that there is decreased randomness at the solid/solution interphase during the adsorption process. The chemical functional groups of the ATKP adsorbent were studied by Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy which helped in the identification of possible adsorption sites on the adsorbent surface. Characterization of the activated tamarind kernel powder which was carried out using standard methods, showed that the values of the parameters of interest such as moisture and dry matter content, ash content, pH and bulk density; fall within acceptable range. Therefore, activated tamarind kernel powder has proven to be a very good adsorbent for the removal of acid dyes and reactive dyes.

CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION

1.1               Background of Study

Environmental pollution control is said to be a matter of utmost concern in many countries. However, air and water pollution constitute the major environmental pollution in several countries. Consequently, open burning leads to air pollution, while industrial effluent and domestic sewage leads to water pollution. Water pollution results to bad effects on public water supplies which can cause health problem, while air pollution can cause lung diseases, burning eyes, cough, and chest tightness. The environmental issues surrounding the presence of colour in effluent is a continuous problem for dye stuff manufacturers, dyers, finishers, and water companies (Kesari etal., 2011).

The contaminants such as dyes, heavy metal, cyanide, toxic organics, nitrogen, phosphorus, phenols, suspended solids, colour, and turbidity from industries and untreated sewage sludge from domestics, are becoming of great concern to the environmental and public health. Therefore, the treatment of these pollutants is very important (Cheremisinoff, 1993).

Residual dyes from different sources (e.g., textile industries, paper and pulp industries, dye and dye intermediates industries, pharmaceutical industries, tannery, and Kraft bleaching industries and others) are considered a wide variety of organic pollutants introduced into the natural water resources or wastewater treatment systems. One of the main sources with severe pollution problems worldwide is the textile industry and its dye-containing wastewaters (i.e. 10,000 different textile dyes with an estimated annual production of 7.105 metric tonnes are commercially available worldwide; 30% of these dyes are used in excess of 1,000 tonnes per annum, and 90% of the textile products are used at the level of 100 tonnes per annum or less) (Baban et al., 2010; Robinson et al., 2001; Soloman et al., 2009). About 10-25% of textile dyes are lost during the dyeing process, and 2-20% is directly discharged as aqueous effluents

in different environmental components. In particular, the discharge of dye-containing effluents into the water environment is undesirable, not only because of their colour, but also because many of the dyes released and their breakdown products are toxic, carcinogenic or mutagenic to life forms mainly because of carcinogens, such as benzidine, naphthalene and other aromatic compounds (Suteu et al., 2009; Zaharia et al., 2009). Without adequate treatment these dyes can remain in the environment for a long period of time. For instance, the half-life of hydrolysed Reactive Blue 19 is about 46 years at pH 7 and 298 K (Haoet al., 2000).

In addition to the aforementioned problems, the textile industry consumes large amounts of potable and industrial water as processing water (90-94%) and a relatively low percentage as cooling water (6-10%) in comparison with the chemical industry where only 20% is used as process water and the rest for cooling. The recycling of treated wastewater has been recommended due to the high levels of contamination in dyeing and finishing processes (i.e. dyes and their breakdown products, pigments, dyeintermediates, auxiliary chemicals and heavy metals, and others(Bertea and Bertea, 2008; Bisschops and Spanjers, 2003; Correia et al., 1994; Orhon et al., 2001).

Synthetic dyes have been increasing in textile industries for dyeing natural and synthetic fibres. Discharge of dye- bearing waste-water makes an adverse effect on aquatic environment because the dyes give water undesirable colour (Ibrahim et al., 2010) and reduce light penetration and photosynthesis (Al-Degs et al., 2004; Wang et al., 2005; Oei et al., 2009). Conventional methods used to treat coloured effluents are oxidation, coagulation and flocculation, biological treatment, membrane filtration. However, the single conventional treatment is unable to remove certain forms of colour, particularly those arising from reactive dyes as a result of their high solubility and low biodegradability (Vijayaraghavan et al., 2009).

1.2               Statement of Research Problem

One of the major problems concerning textile and leather wastewaters is coloured effluent (Ramakrishna, et al; 1997). This wastewater contains a variety of organic compounds and toxic substances, which are harmful to fish and other aquatic organisms. Dyes even in low concentrations affect the aquatic life and food web. Since many organic dyes are harmful to human beings, the removal of colour from process or waste effluents becomes environmentally important. Due to the large degree of organics present in these molecules and the stability of modern dyes, conventional physicochemical and biological treatment methods are ineffective for their removal (Mckay,1995).

1.3               Justification for the Research

Activated carbon is a widely used adsorbent due to its high adsorption capacity, high surface area, microporous structure, and high degree of surface reactivity, but there are some problems associated with its use,it is expensive and regeneration results in a 10–15% loss of adsorbent and its uptake capacity and therefore this adds to the operational costs. This led to a search for cheaper, easily obtainable materials for the adsorption of dye from industrial effluent (Waranusantigulet al., 2003). As a result, the use of natural waste products and plants has increased considerably during the past years for pollution control applications (Kumar et al., 2009).

Tamarind Kernel is a biological waste material which is readily available and relatively cheap. It can be collected and powdered. (Shanthi and Mahalakshmi,2012).It has excellent potential for the removal of dye from coloured effluent (Patel and Vashi, 2010).TKP has been used to remove dyes from the binary mixture of their aqueous solution (Shanthi and Mahalakshmi,2012).It has also found excellent application in the reduction of Chemical oxygen demand (COD), Total dissolved solids; Sulphates and Turbidity from diary waste water (Shobaet al.,2015).

1.4               Aim and Objectives

The aim of this research is to characterize and utilize Activated Tamarind Kernel Powder (ATKP) in the treatment of Industrial wastewater.

This aim will be achieved by the following objectives:

1. To isolate, carbonize and activate the tamarind kernelpowder

1. To determine some physicochemical parameters which include pH, contact time, adsorbent dose and initial concentration of the ATKP adsorbent
2. To run the FTIR Spectra of the activated ATKP adsorbent before and after treatment with Acid Red 1, Reactive Orange 20 and Reactive Blue 29 (AR1, RO20 and RB29) in order to identify the functional groups responsible for the adsorption of each dye molecule unto the ATKP surface
3. To analyse the effect of Initial concentration, Initial pH, Contact time, Adsorbent dose and operating Temperature in order to determine the optimum conditions for maximum adsorption of the dyes (AR1, RO20 and RB29) from their aqueous solutions
4. To examine the adsorption efficiency of ATKP for AR1, RO20 and RB29 by analysing the adsorption isotherms (Langmuir, Freundlich, Temkin and Dubinin- Radushkevich)
5. To examine the rate of adsorption by studying the adsorption Kinetics (Lagagren Pseudo-First order and Pseudo-Secondorder)
6. To examine the spontaneity of adsorption of AR1, RO20 and RB29 on ATKP through the determination of the thermodynamics parameters (Standard Gibbs free energy, Activation Energy, Enthalpy andEntropy)

ANTIBIOTIC RESISTANCE PROFILE OF ESCHERICHIA COLI ISOLATED FROM APPARENTLY HEALTHY DOMESTIC LIVESTOCK

ANTIBIOTIC RESISTANCE PROFILE OF ESCHERICHIA COLI ISOLATED FROM APPARENTLY HEALTHY DOMESTIC LIVESTOCK

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1       Background of the Study

Antibiotic usage is possibly the most important factor that promotes the emergence, selection and dissemination of antibiotic-resistant microorganisms in both veterinary and human medicine (Daniels et al., 2009). This acquired resistance occurs not only in pathogenic bacteria but also in the endogenous flora of exposed individuals (animals and humans). In intensively reared food animals, antibiotics may be administered to whole flocks rather than individual animals, and antimicrobial agents may be continuously fed to food animals such as poultry, goats, and cattle as growth promoters. Therefore, the antibiotic selection pressure for bacterial drug resistance in the animal is high and invariably their faecal flora contains a relatively high proportion of resistant bacteria (Whitworth et al., 2008; Literal et al., 2010).

The mechanism for spreading antibiotic resistance from animals to humans and vice versa remains controversial. Colonization of the intestinal tract with resistant Escherichia coli from chicken has been shown in human volunteers and there is historical evidence that animals are a reservoir for E. coli found in humans (Akwar et al., 2008; Kikuvi et al., 2010). Furthermore, 0spread of antibiotic resistance plasmids in E. coli from chickens to human handlers or of antibiotics – resistant microorganisms from animal to humans in various countries has been reported (Fang et al., 2008).

Resistance has been found in organisms common to both humans and animals, such as E. coli, Salmonella spp., Campylobacter spp. and Enterococcus among others (Davis et al., 2009). Due to the intricate balance of microflora of different habitats within the ecosystem, the transfer of resistance genes among bacteria occupying different habitats has the potential to occur frequently.

Resistance genes may be transferred vertically among bacteria of different genera and families or horizontally among different bacterial species within the same genus or family (Call et al., 2008). Widespread reliance on antimicrobials in food animal production has resulted in a considerable rise of antimicrobial-resistant strains of bacteria, complicating the treatment of infectious diseases in livestock, companion animals, and humans. This has led to important changes in the perceptions and priorities of regulatory agencies with regard to antimicrobial usage, particularly the use of antimicrobials as growth promoters and prophylactic agents. The selective pressure from the use of antimicrobial agents at sub therapeutic levels in dairy cattle could result in the selection of those strains that contain genes for antimicrobial resistance (Call et al., 2008).

1.2       Statement of problem

Molecular tools have been used to correlate animal associated pathogens with similar pathogens affecting humans and to clearly demonstrate transferable resistant genes carried by plasmids common to both animals and humans (Pitout et al., 2009; Ahmed et al., 2010). The possibility of antibiotic resistance genes circulating among humans, animals and the environment constitutes a direct threat to public health. This threat prompts research into emerging resistance mechanisms, novel approaches to antimicrobial efficacy and stringent control measures in the prudent use of antimicrobials in animal medicine.

In the developed world, the extensive use of antibiotics in agriculture, especially for prophylactic and growth promoting purposes, has generated much debate as to whether this practice contributes significantly to increased frequencies and dissemination of resistance genes into other ecosystems. In developing countries like Nigeria, antibiotics are used only when necessary, especially if the animals fall sick, and only the sick ones are treated in such cases. However, even in the absence of heavy use of antibiotics it is important to identify and monitor susceptibility profiles of bacterial isolates, particularly of commensal organisms. This, according to John and Fishman (1997), will provide information on resistance trends including emerging antibiotic resistance which are essential for clinical practice.

1.3       Aim of the study

The aim of this study is to investigate the antibiotic resistance profile of E. coli isolates from apparently healthy domestic livestock.

1.4       Objectives of the study

            The specific objectives of the study include:

1. To determine the antibiotic resistance profile for E. coli strains from the selected livestock
2. To determine comparative resistance rates for E. coli strains from the different livestock

1.5       Scope of the Study

The scope of this study is limited to the investigation of antibiotics resistance profile of Eschirichia coli isolated from apparently healthy domestic livestock with particular interest in cattle, goats, swine and chicken in the absence of extensive use of antibiotics for both prophylaxis and growth promotion.

PHYTOCHEMICAL ANALYSIS AND PROXIMATE COMPOSITION OF AFRICAN PEAR

PHYTOCHEMICAL ANALYSIS AND PROXIMATE COMPOSITION OF AFRICAN PEAR

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the Study

Plants are important in our everyday existence. They provide our foods, produce the oxygen we breathe, and serve as raw materials for many industrial products such as clothes, foot wears and so many others. Plants also provide raw materials for our buildings and in the manufacture of biofuels, dyes, perfumes, pesticides, adsorbents and drugs. The plant kingdom has proven to be the most useful in the treatment of diseases and they provide an important source of all the world’s pharmaceuticals. The most important of these bioactive constituents of plants are steroids, terpenoids, carotenoids, flavanoids, alkaloids, tannins and glycosides. Plants in all facet of life have served a valuable starting material for drug development (Ajibesin, 2011).

Antibiotics or antimicrobial substances like saponins, glycosides, flavonoids and alkaloids etc are found to be distributed in plants, yet these compounds were not well established due to the lack of knowledge and techniques. The phytoconstituents which are phenols, anthraquinones, alkaloids, glycosides, flavonoids and saponins are antibiotic principles of plants. Plants are now occupying important position in allopathic medicine, herbal medicine, homoeopathy and aromatherapy. Medicinal plants are the sources of many important drugs of the modern world. Many of these indigenous medicinal plants are used as spices and food plants; they are also sometimes added to foods meant for pregnant mothers for medicinal purposes (Akinpela and Onakoya, 2006). Many plants are cheaper and more accessible to most people especially in the developing countries than orthodox medicine, and there is lower incidence of adverse effects after use. These reasons might account for their worldwide attention and use. The medicinal properties of some plants have been documented by some researchers ( Akinpelu and Onukoya, 2006).

Medicinal plants are of great importance to the health of individuals and communities. It was the advent of antibiotics in the 1950s that led to the decline of the use of plant derivatives as antimicrobials (Marjorie, 1999). Medicinal plants contain physiologically active components which over the years have been exploited in the traditional medical practices for the treatment of various ailments (Ajibesin, 2011). A relatively small percentage of less than 10% of all the plants on earth is believed to serve as sources of medicine (Marjorie, 1999).

In an effort to find alternative sources of feedstuffs to replace some or all of the maize in the diet of pigs and other non-ruminant farm animals, several studies have been conducted to determine the suitability of some agro-industrial wastes as feed ingredients.

These include cocoa pod husks, brewers spent grains, rice bran, maize bran, groundnut skins, and wheat bran. However, one by-product that requires consideration is cashew nut testa, a by-product obtained from the processing of cashew nuts. Its utilization as animal feed even at relatively low dosage formulations will minimize its disposal problem as well as reduce the cost of animal feeding.

1.2     Statement of the Problem

It is now known that agricultural materials are used as animal feeds and that they contain phytochemicals. These phytochemicals serve as antibiotic principles of plants.

The need for a cheap, renewable, easily available and nutritive source of material as feed supplements has therefore attracted me to investigate African pear leaf, (APL) as an alternative.

1.3     Objectives of the Study

Broadly stated, the purpose of this work is to investigate/assess the nutritive and medicinal values of African pear leaf as an effective replacement in animal diets. Specifically, this work investigated:

• The proximate constituents of African pear leaf; and
• The qualitative and quantitative phytochemicals of African pear leaf.