Types of Library

Types of Library (ies)

According to Mbashir (2012), the types of services of any library depend on the purpose of the establishment and running of such library, as soon as libraries are classified according to the types of services and the patron they served. These different categories of libraries are the Academics, public, schools, special, private and National libraries. The focus of this study is on academic library, however the categories shall be considered:

1. Public Libraries: – These are established for the purpose of serving the generality of the society through tax: supports and they are without bias to sex, age, race or religion.

2. Academic Libraries:-These are libraries institution of higher learning like University, College of Education, College of technology and Polytechnics etc for impacting knowledge and research. They are meant to serve the communities of their respective institutions.

3. School Libraries:-These are libraries founded for the students and their teachers, the purpose of the libraries are almost the same with academic libraries but without any emphasizes on research and documentation.

4. Special Libraries:- These are libraries established by a particular organization who specializes in certain production, services or research, such as firm, banks, professional associations, government agencies, research institutes, media organization.

5. National Libraries:- These could be said to be special type of public library that are established and maintained by National government for some specialized functions like:

1. Serve as a legal deposit of all publication emanating from the country.
2. Issue of the National bibliography and national union catalogue
3. Stock collection of foreign publications
4. Issuing of ( ISBN) and (ISSN) numbers
5. Coordination of the activities of other types of libraries within the country.

6. Private libraries: – Libraries established by individuals are known as private libraries they are more restricted in use than any other type of libraries. Because, the owner determines who to use them.
7. Mobile libraries: A mobile library is a vehicle designed for use as a library. It is designed to hold books on shelves in such a way that when the vehicle is parked they can be accessed by readers. Mobile libraries are often used to provide library services to villages and city suburbs that have no library buildings.

The Economic Development communication and its functions in achieving government policy

The Economic Development communication and its functions in achieving government policy

Economic Development communication: Providing citizens with information on priorities, programmes and activities is a vital government function which underpins state-society relations. Governments in the developed world are acutely aware of the need to communicate effectively both to influence public opinion and maintain their legitimacy, and often construct elaborate structures of press offices, and information ministries to perform the communication function. But in many developing countries, governments lack communication capacity, and the development of the communication function is hampered by a combination of weak incentives (e.g. no culture of disclosure), lack of professional training and communication infrastructure, and lack of supportive legal framework (e.g. access to information laws).

Institutional culture often plays an important role in shaping a government’s approach to communication, but changing institutional culture takes time. Providing citizens with adequate information on priorities, programmes and activities contributes to government legitimacy and actualization of this economic policies. To be legitimate players in public spheres, governments need to develop and maintain effective communication capacity. This allows them to take stock of citizens’ needs and preferences, and to foster a more deliberative public space for multi-stakeholder participation, informed policy debate and development effectiveness. Key areas for consideration include:

The functions of government communication: There are three primary functions of government communication which are:
i. Informing
ii. Advocating/persuading (for policies and reforms), and
iii. Engaging citizens.

Effective public communication efforts enable citizen participation, but many countries lack a culture of consultation and participation, exacerbated by low literacy rates and lack of information provision. In many cases, countries not only lack capacity in communication between government and the public, but also internal communication among government agencies.

Incentives for government communication: Governments need to be aware of the incentives for communicating. They often do not realise that communication is part of their job and is fundamental to their functioning. Lack of communications budgets, secrecy laws, lack of elite will to share information, or the preference for communicating through state-owned media, can be disincentives for government to develop communication capacity.

The role of ethics in government communication: Government communication involves not only sending out persuasive messages to the public, but also explaining working policies, creating awareness of the rights of citizens, and developing mechanisms that enable two-way communication between citizens and government. Donors and governments need to understand that government communication is not propaganda.

The enabling environment for government communication: Well drafted, legally binding and enforceable policies on access to information are crucial factors of an enabling environment, along with media literacy and strengthened media organisations.

The lack of professionalism in government communication in developing countries presents a serious challenge. Many governments lack the infrastructure needed for effective communication. Supporting government communication capacity as ‘information development’ may be a useful approach. There are two sides to information development: First, a culture of disclosure needs to be created; and second, governments need to have relevant information available. Further recommendations include the following:

Government communication capacity can be increased by drawing on traditional systems of communication already in place and developing professional associations among spokespeople. Coordination among government departments is also necessary. Methods that are interactive, citizen-based and focus on peer-to-peer learning are important tools in building communication capacity.

It is important to address the lack of journalistic professionalism. In some countries, governments are unwilling to work with the media because they don’t trust them to report objectively. Therefore, journalism training is a component of government communication capacity. Government communication is as much about attitude as it is about aptitude. In some cases, governments totally own, manipulate and/or terrorise the media in their country. Institutional culture often plays an important role in shaping a government’s approach to communication. Innovative approaches are needed to build trust and find common ground among NGOs, media and government.

Goals and Tools of Facilities Managemen

Goals and Tools of Facilities Management

Management of facilities goals cannot be convincing because what they majorly aimed at is to exploit the potentials benefit of the adoption of facilities management to the greatest extent which alternately may probably not been previously unexploited for the potential benefits of the business organization.

According to Hamer (1988) state in is understanding that gaining a complete control over the current condition or present situation of an organization is the primary need for facilities management. But to have such control, it greatly involves having a full understanding of what is already in an existence; who is using it presently; the purpose it serves and the cost of it.

The estate management strategic, which accords with the suggestion of Adewunmi & Ogunba (2006) that the core competencies of facilities management, property management, and construction management is the best area of contribution of the surveyor in the professional of facilities management. According to review from Meyer (2003) he states that competencies of facilities management have a lot of role to play in churn management and workspace.
Ascertaining that every bit of space in an organization is appropriately used and accounted for is another goal of facilities management with the interest of ensuring that the organization meets the trinity of investment objectives.

Facilities Management Functions

 According to Sekula (2003) emphasis is laid on the facilities manager were he says that success is not only anchored to how well or perfect a facilities manager does his job but how well a facilities manager can fits in. Therefore, comprehending the organization and its culture is very important. To start with, the need to initiate whether long-range strategic planning is in place and whether the plan is still valid is of essential. Issues that impact the safety and security of any organization and its employees are mission-critical issues. Operations and maintenance, technology infrastructure, workspace, and departmental organization are the class of operational challenges to b dealt with. The study did not only expatiate on the services being carried out with regards to facilities management business but also detail or expression about personal characteristics to be possessed by facilities managers’ effectiveness. The connection of the study to this research work is to study the establishment of human characters to the accomplishment of facilities management operations. More so, the commitment of facilities management is basically to present the workspace management of an organisation.

Owen (1995) gives the twelve break-down of facilities managements business area, this twelve business areas are further broken-down with the aim of giving the detail components. The major headings include law, human resources, information technology, building and real estate, marketing, support services, building maintenance services, business management, operations, building capital works, finance and churn management

Motivation of Staffs for Improve Productivity

Motivation of Staffs for Improve Productivity

For every business institutions, staffs are the main implementer of sets or giving policies. Between the management and the customers, they are the strategic link. Therefore this make the motivation of staff becomes very much important, crucial and necessary especially when the delivery of high quality of services is of high priority or of paramount and essential because the quality of services is a subjective concept. This is related to the level at which the current experience diverge from the main expected experience within responsibilities or range of responsibilities. Therefore to determine the quality of staffs, there should be great different in what you get and what you are expected. Because when one gets more than expected there is definitely quality in work done. According to Bevan (1991) he states six summaries of the major points of services management for staff.

i. The staff is responsible for managing client’s involvement.

ii. Staff should look for both the positive and the negative circles; make more noticeable the positive; and try to completely remove the negative.

iii. Responsible to manage work action, and make the action correspond.

iv. Staffs are responsible to manage customer’s expectation – everybody is conscious of quality therefore it is regards as the difference between expectation and reality.

v. Staffs are also expected to guide against problem at all cost most especially at contact point. Contact point is the point at which the client experience the services

vi. A staff is also expected to have set style of operation.

Therefore it is of vital important that staffs are carried along in all the activities of the organization.

HISTORY OF THE COOPERATIVE MOVEMENT IN NIGERIA

HISTORY OF THE COOPERATIVE MOVEMENT IN NIGERIA

The modem type of cooperative was introduced formally into Nigeria by the colonial government in Nigeria that is the British colonial administration in 1935.

The British colonial government had in 1904 introduced the cooperative movement into India which was one of the Bri6tish colonial government in India enacted a cooperative law in India. Following the success recorded in India, the British colonial government in Nigeria tried to experiment the introduction of cooperative in Nigeria.

The year 1935 cooperative movement in Nigeria was taken by the colonial government in Nigeria to enact the Nigeria cooperative society’s ordinance.

The government tried to investigate the possibility and desirability of introducing the cooperative movement into the colony of Nigeria. Thus in 1933 the government invited a cooperative expert, Mr. C.F. Strickland, C.I.E, from India and request him to make an investigative tour of Nigeria and to advice the Nigeria government on the desirability and possibility of introducing cooperative movement into the colony of Nigeria Mr. C.F Strickland carried out the investigation and submitted his report and the 17th April, 1934.in the report battled report on the strongly recommended the introduction of the cooperative movement into the colony of Nigeria, main training that cooperative societies would help to improve the economic and social conditions of Nigeria and among other.

The report was accepted by the government. After the acceptance, the government enacted the first Nigeria cooperative society’s law. In 1935 while in 1936 regulation were drawn up to guide the running of cooperative societies. Cooperative cocoa societies stared in the western part of Nigeria. In 1938, worker formed cooperative thrift and loan societies in the eastern and western of Nigeria.

Mr. Strickland was skeptical about the Africans ability to organize the run of cooperative on their owner, he therefore, recommended for serious government intervention, can troll guidance and involvement form the asset in cooperative matters in Nigeria. Then government adopted wholly Mr. Strickland’s recommendation and went ahead to organize and control cooperative and it has continued till the present day almost in its totality.

In 1936 major E.F.C. Haig was appointed the first register of cooperative societies in Nigeria. While in 1937, Mr. J.U Eke, M.B.E was appointed as the first inspector of cooperative in eastern Nigeria and he worked in calabar province. As soon as the cooperative movement was introduce into the country it started to grow. By the end of 1944, there were one hundred and eight one (181) cooperative societies in Nigeria. Different types of cooperative societies were springing up in various part of the country such as:
i. Produce marketing cooperative societies in the western.
ii. Credit and consumer cooperative in the east.
iii. Credit and market cooperative in the Northern provinces. Therefore, cooperative thrift and loan societies sprang up in those urban centers and spread to other towns.

The history of cooperative movement in Nigeria has been one of continuous growth. For better appreciation it is grouped into three stages:
1. The stage that describes the introduction or birth of the movement to the Rockdale centenary conference helps in Lagos in august, 1944.
2. The stage describes the regionalization of the movement in 1951, and
3. The state that describes the period of consolidation.

ORIGIN AND GROWTH OF MODERN COOPERATION

Cooperative ideals which metamorphosis into the Rocha dale equitable pioneers had origin Thus what is today regarded as the modern type cooperative movement owes its basic beginning to toad to the activities of in Rocha dale equitable pioneers of toad lane, England in 1844. It is of interested to note here that cooperative is as old as man.

The Rockdale pioneers were the first to go into business as a cooperative and to register. They opened a retail consumer shop according to the cooperative principle volunteer democracy Common ownership and equity. Every one brought shares of one pound each and brought their supplies from the shop in cash according to their rules. Their officers were honest highly committed and fully accountable their methods led them to success and they become a model for cooperative all over the world. The secret of their success can trace to the following factors.

1. Application of owenite idealism
2. Adoption of business-life

• Enlightened and committed membership

1. Lessons learnt from the failure of pre-Rockdale cooperative

They started with a shop using it as the foundation for further development, providing the member with self-employment and finally establishing a self-supporting community.

 SCOPE OF COOPERATIVE SOCIETY EDUCATION

The scope of cooperative education include

1. Information: this involves informing the general public about cooperative developments.
2. Member education: this refers to the development of members potentials for social action and personal growth

• Training of cooperative employees

1. Government official and would be members.

MOTIVES OF INVESTMENTS

MOTIVES OF INVESTMENTS

No matter the form in which investment ideas are contemplated, they are under laid with fundamental beneficial or satisfying motives, which must be of advantage to the investors and promoters. These desired motives or benefits could be classified into the following:-

(a) Social Benefits;

(b) Political Benefits;

(c) Economic Benefits.

(a) SOCIAL BENEFITS:

These are benefits in kind. They do not necessarily or directly confer financial interests (Thorncroft, 1965). They are intangible to the investment promoters and may arise just to promote the social status or ego of the investor and as such amount to self-actualization of the social interest on the investors. A few examples would suffice:

(i) A government is pleased with the successful establishment of social amenities in communities. In this case the operators in government and the benefiting communities derive satisfaction from the facilities. The social image of the operators in government is thus enhanced and as such, they enjoy and wield more leadership influence.

(ii) A man who executes his marriage ceremony without problems considers this social project a success and as such derives social satisfaction from the venture.

(iii) A man who has four children and has all of them graduated from the polytechnic/university with gainful employment considers his marriage institution well blessed and successful. After all a marriage is a social relationship with benefits as an end.

POLITICAL BENEFITS:

These are also intangible benefits to the investors. They may take the form of political power being their ability to influence decisions in the communities. Such investors may occupy political positions, thus increasing their ability to wield some defined dispositions and acting as heavy weights in society.

Eminent personalities in these political positions enjoy social adulation and powerfully wield derived authority within the communities. This is often the case within the traditional political institutions such as “Oba”, “Obi”, “Chief”, “Alafin”, “Oni”, “Emir”, Obong, etc. They often exercise heavy political authorities in the administration of their domains.

There are issues everyday that are dealt with by those occupying political positions such as the president, prime minister, governors, legislator, senator and councilor. They derive political benefits from their positions.

ECONOMIC BENEFITS:

These normally take the form of tangible benefits to the investors. Economic benefits may arise in the form of:

(i) Capital gains: Here, there is capital appreciation realizable at the end of the business. The surplus capital realized enables the investor to recycle the investment if its level is attractive.

(ii) Periodic income flow: Here, the investor receives periodic income flow. This may be on daily, weekly, monthly, half-yearly or annually throughout the projects life as desired by the investor(s).

To enjoy these benefits the investor(s) adopt cost effective strategy with good management.

Viability Appraisal

Viability Appraisal

Viability appraisal commences where feasibility terminates. Thus viability appraisals establishes whether or not it is worthwhile to embark on the project, which has already been established as capable of being undertaken (i.e. one that has satisfied the seven parameters, already discussed). Answering this question also throws light on a number of important issues. For example, in the case of a decision to carryout property development, viability appraisals provides opportunity of giving guidance on such but incidental issues as how to develop, which of the schemes or modes of development to adopt, and in appropriate cases, the phasing of development and the best method of marketing or distributing the resultant products or amenities, or of sharing the benefits generated by the development. Viability appraisal looks at the costs and benefits expected from the proposed project.

A viability appraisals involves an analysis of the entire investment proposal to predetermine the level of attractiveness (productivity and profitability) of the conceived plan. This should be done in the context of the motives of the investors

Scope and Application of Decision Appraisal

Scope and Application of Decision Appraisal

Decision appraisal is essentially an aid or guide to logical, rational or prudent decision-making. In a way, all appraisals lead to the making of one form of decision or the other, be it a decision on the value, on investment or granting of a loan, on carrying out land development, on urban and regional planning, on urban renewal and so on and so forth. But the basic distinction between the two broad generic types of appraisal remains significant.

Project appraisal is very global in its sweep. Life is essentially a decision making process. It is inconceivable that any rational man can ever take a decision without consciously or unconsciously weighing in its implications and consequences; or without consulting wise heads for expert advice in appropriate cases.

Rational human beings normally like to know well in advance whether they can successfully undertake a project or scheme be it land development/use, commercial undertaking inter tribal war, marriage, industrial enterprise, mining operation, land resource exploitation, lending investment in stocks and shares, engineering and construction works, urban renewal and redevelopment and so on and so forth; and if so, whether or not the outcome or consequences would justify the venture or decisions.

Decision appraisal, therefore goes beyond decisions on real estate investment, land and resource development, urban and regional planning. Its essence is applicable to all decisions. Who appraises what is largely a function of the adequacy of one’s training and experience for the project being appraised, and the suitability, relevance, or adaptability of one’s professional techniques to the particular project or scheme being appraised.

Property Appraisal Definition and Categories

Property Appraisal Definition and Categories

Definition

An property appraisal is the process and result of an attempt to answer one or more specific questions about a real estate parcel, for example, defined value (value estimate), marketability, usefulness, or suitability. Thus defined, the term could be applied to an estimate, that is, an informed conclusion based on evidence or simply a personal opinion.

An appraisal is thus “an opinion of one or more specifically defined economic factors relating to adequately described property as of a specific date, supported by the analysis of relevant data”. An opinion is a conviction founded on acceptable evidence but less than positive knowledge. Anyone may have an opinion; but to have meaning, the opinion must be supportable. A professional appraisal goes beyond the personal feelings of the appraiser. In appraisal assignments, it reflects market evidence and a conclusion of market value, derived by appropriate data analysis in conformity with standard professional practice.

An appraisal is usually the result of laborious and complicated deliberations and/or computations delivered orally, or presented in an authoritative and comprehensively written form to the client who requires the appraisal to make a decision or to execute a policy.

CATEGORIES OF PROPERTY APPRAISAL

Appraisal falls into two broad categories, namely,

1. Executory Appraisal and
2. Decision Appraisal.

Executory Property Appraisal

Executory property appraisal may be discontinuous or continuous type. The discontinuous appraisal is the type where the appraiser goes off the scene once he submits his appraisal report to the client. For example, if a mortgagor instructs an appraiser to estimate the value of his building being put up as collateral for a mortgage loan, and the appraiser’s involvement ends with the presentation of the appraiser’s report, his appraisal is a discontinuous one. If on the other hand the client asked for an estimate of the value of the property for mortgage purpose and on getting it, he gives the appraisal a further instruction to enter into negotiation, on his behalf, with the mortgagee then this instruction widens the horizon of the participation of the appraiser in the execution of the decision and gives opportunity for further monitoring of the transaction. This leads us to continuous executory appraisal type which, for our purposes we shall call Management Appraisal or Follow up Appraisal. A follow up appraisal will not only indicate whether or not a decision was really a worthwhile one but will also help in the achievement of the objective of the decision by exposing areas of subsequent adjustment in order to ensure realisation of the estimated worthwhileness.

Decision appraisal

Decision appraisal is essentially an aid or guide to logical, rational or prudent decision-making. In a way, all appraisals lead to the making of one form of decision or the other, be it a decision on the value, on investment or granting of a loan, on carrying out land development, on urban and regional planning, on urban renewal and so on and so forth. But the basic distinction between the two broad generic types of appraisal remains significant.

As already indicated, all those appraisals which are concerned largely with the carrying out of decisions already taken are better described as executory appraisal notwithstanding that they may lead to the making of or aid in taking incidental decisions. Decisions emanating from executory appraisals are therefore incidental, secondary or afterthoughts. For example, if an owner decides to sell his office complex and engages the services of a professional appraiser to advise him on the market value of the property, the appraisal so prepared is essentially an executory appraisal in aid of the carrying out the primary and radical decision taken by the owner to sell.

Effects of Curing on High-Performance Concrete

Effects of Curing on High-Performance Concrete

Curing is the process in which the concrete is protected from loss of moisture and kept within a reasonable temperature range.

Hooton et al., (2002) examined effect of duration of curings on resistance of the near-surface zone to Chloride(Cl) penetration. He found that there was little added benefit to curing beyond 3 days at 20 °C. They also found that the detrimental effects of poor curing were limited to the top 40 mm of concrete.

Meeks and Carino, (1999) completed a comprehensive review of information on curing of high-performance concrete. The long-term goal of the proposed research was to provide the basis for modifying current ACI standards related to curing so that structures in service will perform as required. Curing requirements should consider economy of construction and not place undue demands on the construction team. On the other hand, curing requirements should assure the owner that the potential properties of the concrete in the structure are realized.

A common feature of HPC design is development of high strength (U.S Department of Transportation). Mixture proportions commonly involve low water-cement ratios. As has been mentioned elsewhere, water-cement ratios less than 0.40 are generally thought to create a condition where the concrete will internally desiccate due to consumption of all of the mixing water by hydration, and that if additional hydration is necessary, then water must be added during curing. But since low water-cement ratio concretes tend to be relatively impermeable, there is some question about how effective externally added water will be in penetrating the concrete.

Persson, (1997) studied relative humidity depth profiles in concrete at various water-cement ratios, with and without silica fume in the concrete. As expected, the internal relative humidity of low water-cement ratio concretes (<0.4) that were sealed against any evaporation begins to drop below 100 percent within 28 days, eventually dropping to about 75 percent after 450 days.

This pattern is accelerated when silica fume is present. Similar specimens stored in water without any surface sealant show the same pattern, suggesting that the external water is in fact not getting into the concrete to any appreciable degree. The minimum depth analyzed was 50 mm.

Water and its Impact on Cement Concrete

Water and its Impact on Cement Concrete

Water

Water is one of the most important ingredients for concrete. But people still ignore its significance in the aspect of its quality. The element is required for preparation of mortar, mixing of cement concrete and for curing work. The quality and quantity of waters has much influence on the strength of cement mortar and concrete in construction work (GharExpert.com, 2013).

Water occupies 6-8% of the composition of fresh concrete, it provides for cement hydration and for the workability of the fresh concrete mixture, but when in excess, it determinately affects concrete porosity and mechanical strengths (Neville, 1995). It is an important ingredient of concrete as it actively participates in the chemical reaction with cement and helps to form the strength giving cement gel (Shetty, 2006).

Adebakin, (2003) says that, of the world’s water bodies, only 2.5% is fresh water, the remaining constitutes seawater; and he defines the fresh water as that purified expanse of water, which is devoid of any form of impurities. While the seawater on the other hand, he considers as water containing high percentage of sodium chloride.

Quality of water

The water used for mixing and curing should be clean and free from injurious quantities of acids, alkalis, salts, oils, organic materials, sugar, vegetable growth and other substances that may be deleterious to blocks, stones, steel or concrete. Shetty, (2006) emphasizes that the quality of water affects its strength, so it is necessary to carefully look into the purity and quality of waters. Price, (2006) gives that the popular yardstick of suitability of waters for concrete mixing is that, ‘if waters is fit for drinking, it is fit for concrete’. This does not appear to be a true statement for all conditions, he adds.

Portable waters, whose P^H value should not be less than 6, is generally considered satisfactory for mixing and curing (GharExpert.com, 2013).

 Effects of bad quality water on cement concrete

It has been observed that certain common impurities in water affect the quality of mortar on concrete produced, and in spite of the best materials (i.e cement and aggregates e.tc) used in the cement concrete, required results are not obtainable (GharExpert.com, 2013). Some bad effects of water containing impurities are as follow (GharExpert.com, 2013):

• Presence of salts in water e.g calcium, iron salt, inorganic salt, and sodium e.tc are dangerous that they can reduce the initial strength of concrete and in a few cases, no strength is achieved. There will also be rusting problem in steel provided in the Reinforced Cement Concrete.
• Strength is also reduced when acids, alkalis, industrial waste, sanitary sewage and sugar are present in waters.
• Presence of silt or suspended particles in water has adverse effects on concrete strength.
• Presence of oil such as vegetable, mineral or linseed oil in water more than 2% reduces the strength of concrete up to 25%.
• The presence of vegetable/algae reduces the bond between cement paste and aggregate.

Opinions of researchers on the suitability of sea water for use in concrete

According to Mbadike and Elinwa, (2011), brack water is water that has more salinity than fresh water, but not as much as sea water. Brackish waters is also the primary waste product of the salinity gradient power. Salinity gradient or Osmotic power is the energy retrieved from the difference in salt concentration between sea water and river water. Water is said to be salty if it contains chlorides and sulphates (Tchobanoglous, 2003).

According to Chaneyenterprises.com, (2013), Salt does not damage concrete, but the effects of salt can. Salt does not chemically react with hardened concrete.  It does lower the freezing point of water, attracts moisture, and increase pressure of frozen water.  It can also increase the freeze-thaw cycles if the temperature fluctuates between 15°F and 25°F.  Concrete scaling can occur in the absence of salts too if there were problems at installation. The better quality the concrete and placement, the less likely that salt’s effects will have an adverse effect.

Salt waters contains magnesium chloride, sulphate ions and hydrogen carbonation ions that will essentially attack concrete to a certain degree, but what really starts to corrode in a concrete structure is any of the steel buried within. Concrete contains an alkaline environment that provides some protection against corrosion. The steel inside the concrete that is used for reinforcement will react with the concrete and form film that protects the steel. But however, the salt water works against this process.  The chloride and sulphate ions will weaken that film as the water soaks into the concrete.  Once the film is breached, then the corrosion process begins to work on the steel itself (Pondarmor.com, 2013).

Vicat, (1812) opines that the world seawater in most cases has salinity of the range 34-35%, though the properties of water to dissolved salts tend to vary within the ocean, the major component ions are evenly distributed in ocean water in relatively constant proportion that accounts for the defects and failures of buildings located in coastal areas.

According to Shelty, (2006), sea waters has salinity of about 3.5%. In that, sodium chloride has about 78% and 15% is chloride and sulphate of magnesium. He adds that sea water should also contain small quantities of sodium and potassium salts. These salts can react with reactive aggregates in the like manner as Alkalies in cement, therefore sea water should not be used even for Plain Cement Concrete (PCC) if aggregates are known to be potentially reactive (Shelty, 2006). He comments that sea water is not advisable for use in plastering a wall intended to receive painting finishing.

There are some reports that sea water does not appreciably reduce the strength of concrete although may lead to corrosion of reinforcement in certain cases (Fatoku, 2005). He discloses in his report that it only reduces the 28day strength of concrete by about 10-15% which can be made up for by re-designing the mix.

The overall picture of the quality of concrete is usually provided by its compressive strength (ccsenet.org, 2012). Obviously, water that is considered satisfactory for the mixing of concrete is as well good enough for curing (Emmanuel, Fatokun and Olabode, 2012).

Previous investigations and researches carried out regarding the effect of salt water on compressive strength of concrete either as mixing or curing water, or as both, have over the time produced undependable outcomes which present a lot of controversies in analysis of results and reaching a unanimous and unified conclusion (Emmanuel, Fatokun, and olabode, 2012). They referred to the reports of the past studies, which revealed that, the compressive strength of concrete increases if salt water is used for mixing, while recent reports have it that there is decrease of compressive strength of concrete if salt water is used for mixing.

According to Vicat, (1812) and Prascal et al., (2006), the chemical action of sea water on concrete is majorly due to the invasion by sulphate of magnesium (MgSO₄). This is made worse by the chlorides that are in the sea water which truncate the swelling that usually serves as the symptom of the attack by the sulphate in the water which invariably makes the concrete whitish in appearance. More severe attacks subject the hardened concrete to expansion which leads to spalls and cracks in the concrete. The final effect of this whole process, is that the concrete becomes liable and reduced to soft mud (Prascal et al., 2006). At first, according to these researchers, the concrete increases in strength during the early stage of this attack, but consequently followed by loss of strength which preceded the expansion, spalling and cracking. Bryant, (1964) adds that potassium and magnesium sulphates (KS, MgS) present in salt water can cause sulphate attack in concrete structures as they readily react with hydrochloride of calcium (Ca(OH)₂ that is in the cement by the hydration of C₃S and C₂S as given below:

S + CH + 2HCSH_{2 +} KH

S + CH + 2H – CSH₂+ MH.

The Meaning of ‘Environmental Law’

The Meaning of ‘Environmental Law’

Environmental Law in Nigeria is describes as a body of rules and regulations which there objective is for the protection of the environment from pollution and wasteful depletion of natural resources and ensures sustainable development.

Environmental laws serve as a tool use by the government for ensuring that the environment we are living is conducive and protected. It is argue that environmental law has its own conceptual apparatus, in the sense that there is a set of principles and concepts which can be said to exist across the range of subjects covered in the definition of environment.

Although there is a valid debate about the extent to which these principles have gained universal acceptance as principles with meaningful legal effect, the process of establishing environmental law as an identifiable discipline has begun. Clearly these principles provide a theoretical context in which to view the detail of environmental law and thus it is important to stress that an environmental lawyer needs to understand the law in practice as well as the detailed rules in order to possess the tools required to carry out the task of solving particular problems properly.

One of the major Characteristics of the law and policy of environmental protection is that it evolves, constantly reflecting the various values and priorities which we place upon different aspects of environmental issues. This means that in recent years as environmental issues have gained in importance, we have seen a period of unprecedented rapid change. In a subject such as this where activities have to be planned reasonably far in advance, it is always helpful to know what is likely to happen in the future as well as what will be the law at the time.

Environmental monitoring

Environmental monitoring

Environmental monitoring is the systematic observation and measurement of variable in time and space. Before the actual impact of a project on the environment can be determined, there is need to monitor selected variables.

To ascertain the health impact of a project like power station, the concentration of air pollutant in area of habitation and incidence of mobility needs careful attention to design monitoring programme which is likely to be long lasting and it require considerable technical manpower and cash. Some programme could be cheap to implement, for instance noise levels at a nearby village during project construction.

Environmental impact monitoring

Environmental Impact Monitoring is said to be designed for monitoring the Environmental Management Plan, and project operations process. It’s also designed for assessing the extent to which commitments contained in EIA reports are achieved during the various project development and operations phases. Impact Mitigation Monitoring exercises are carried out to assess the degree and effectiveness of the mitigation measures proffered in an EIA report.

In a typical Impact Mitigation Monitoring (IMM) exercise, the following statutory actions are carried out:

1. Facility inspection
2. Interactive session with project managers on the Mitigation Checklist for the EIA of that project.
3. Interview and interaction with the action party responsible for ensuring full implementation of a particular action.
4. Inspection and Verification of the parameters that shall be monitored to ensure effective implementation of that action.
5. Check the timing for the implementation of the action to ensure that the objectives of mitigation are fully met.
6. Interact with project Engineers and Technicians on mitigation measures that are not applicable, or not enforceable or still not practicable in line with good environmental principles with a view to finding out practical alternatives.

Consequences of environmental degradation in Nigeria

Consequences of environmental degradation in Nigeria

The degradation of the environment connotes the worse of the physical environment as a result of human activities by the displacement of natural landmarks and environmental pollution, which in turn foul the air, land and water; thereby the life of organisms including human lives are endangered. Many literatures have shown the consequences of environmental problems; in particular as it affect the Niger Delta region of Nigeria as a result of the activities of oil exploitation and oil exploitation. Odogbor (2005), stated the effects of industrial wastages and oil spillages culturally, religiously, economically and politically on the life of the people. Later, he pointed out the negative implications these effects have had on the people on all the categories of lives in the affected communities in country. Furthermore to strengthen the fact that the government of Nigeria had made tremendous progress towards enacting environmental policies so as to protect the environment in general, the table 2 below entail such laws that are related to environmental issues as enacted particularly in the nineties (1990s).

Niger State Environmental Protection Agency (NISEPA)

Niger State Environmental Protection Agency (NISEPA)

Niger State Environmental Protection Agency is established by the Niger state government towards ensuring a conducive and sustainable development of the environment for present and generations to come. The Niger State Government signed an edict cited as the Niger State Environmental Protection Agency in 1996. This edict was amended on 4^th of May 2011 by the Niger State House of Assembly as Niger State environmental Protection Law 2011. The executive General Manager with his team of qualified professionals based on directives from the Governor’s office, prepare the Agency’s programmes towards achieving a target and expected completion time as well as their cost analysis.

The Niger State Environmental Protection Agency (NISEPA) has fully legal responsibilities to manage and oversee the state of the environment and natural resources in the state. It is the agency mandate to raise the environmental awareness level and education among the people of Niger State for proper and sustainable development.

Functions of Niger State Environmental Protection Agency

According to the amended edict of 4^th of May 2011, the Niger state environmental protection agency should perform the following mandate;

1. The environmental protection and the development of the environment of the state and in consultation to the Federal Environmental Protection Agency (FEPA).
2. Protection of our environment and biodiversity conservation and sustainable development in Niger State.
3. Conduct research on matters relating to environment.
4. In conjunction with relevant agencies to coordinate urban and regional planning and liaise with federal, state, local government, public and private organizations.
5. Collaborate with federal government through the ministry of environment in conducting public investigation on major environmental pollution.
6. Monitor water, air land and natural resources quality.
7. Promote environmental education and awareness.

Objectives of Niger State Environmental Protection Agency

In order to efficiently discharge the function stated above, the agency developed the state Environmental Action Plan. The principal objective of the action plan is in the development and protection of Niger State environment in consonance with the national guideline. The objectives of the Agency as stated in the action plan are as follows:

1. Control of litter bags in the environment through the establishment of waste buy-back of polytene bags.
2. Control illegal mining activities in some parts of the state e.g in Layinba in Gurara local government area, Garin- Maiwayo in Katcha local government area e.t.c.
3. To reduce the rate of water contamination and infection in sachet water through constant checking of their facilities and quality test of their products.
4. Ensuring that all projects with potential environmental impact within the state undergo an EIA process and recommending reforms or imitative measures where desirable.
5. To make sure that there is reduction in the infestation of pest and vectors in the environment through fumigation and enforcement of hotelier and restaurants.
6. To ensure that the amount of particulate in the environment is reduce by enforcing tipper loaders to cover their trucks.

Achievement of Niger State Environmental Protection Agency

1. The reduction on indiscriminate disposal of waste through the agency’s weekly sensitization programmes on NTA, NSTV and radio stations.
2. Frequent sensitization through drama and jingles on effects of indiscriminate waste disposal on our drainages, to reduce flooding and negatives effect on our health, importance and maintaining of flowers and trees in the city as well as effect of cutting down trees and bush burning.
3. De-silting of drainage in the metropolis (clearing of waste in drainages) and putting in place measures for sustainability.
4. The involvement of village heads and ward heads in sensitizing their subjects on the danger of dislodging domestic waste in water channel (drainage)
5. Engagement of private waste collectors in managing waste in Minna, Suleja and the environs.
6. Extension of sanitation services to Suleja, plans are at advanced stage to extend the daily sanitation services to Bida and Kontagora Local government areas.

Environmental Sustainability

Environmental Sustainability

Sustainability

Sustainability means that the resources of the land must be used in such a way that it will continue to be available. Sustainability is in supports that future generation has equal opportunities to the resources that the planet earth offers. Sustainability is concerned with ensuring that the relationship between man and nature for the co evolution of both within the earth surface is maintained. Brundtland Commission defines “sustainable development as development that meets the need of the present generation without compromising the needs of future generations”. It is also referred to as the goal that allows for the continuing improvement of standard of living without reversible damage to resources for surviving (Lehrer, 2001). The word ‘sustainability’ means the capacity for an activity to be carried on indefinitely into the future, given the amount and type of resources available, whereas ‘development’ implies that society will change or grow in the same way. Hence, ‘sustainability’ suggests change and improvement that is compatible with environmental, social and other limits, both now and in the long-term future (Gray and Wiedemann, 1999 cited in Alabi, 2012).

Environmental Sustainability

Environmental sustainability is the process of making sure that man interaction with the natural resources of the land within the environment are continued with the idea of keeping the environment in its original state based on ideal-seeking behavior. Sustainability can be identifying with the conservation of the environment as everlasting source of natural resources for man. The opportunity for improvement arrived when a new philosophy called ‘sustainable development’ was introduced in 1987 in Brundtland Report. Since that, many progressive global events had taken place to increase the awareness on environment and sustainable agendas such as Rio Earth Summit 1992, Maastritcht Treaty 1992, Kyoto Conference on Global Warming 1997, Johannesburg Earth Summit 2002 and Washington Earth Observation Summit 2003 (Nazirah, 2005). Therefore sustainability concept and its practical implementation have been increasingly considered by policy makers to be one of the most critical tools of achieving a balance between economic, social and environmental objectives.
To answer the question ‘what is to be sustained’ the Board of Sustainable Development of the United State National Academy of Science under the support of the Brundtland Commission identified three main categories of what is to be sustained as nature, life support systems and community. From surveyed literatures, the board found that most commonly emphasis was placed on life support system, which defined nature as a source of services relating to the life support of humankind, the study of ecosystem services has strengthened this definition over time. In contrast, some of the sustainable development literature value nature for its basic and essential value rather than its utility for human being. There were also needs to sustain cultural diversity, including livelihoods, groups, and places that constitute distinctive and threatened community. In general, there is sustainability of the environment if there is control and reasonable exploitation of the ecosystem by man for whatever development. In actual fact sustainable development entails:

(a) Inclusion of environmental, social, cultural and economic criteria in the planning and also the implementation of developmental policies in both public and private sectors.

(b) Conservation and recovery, where necessary, of the adequate natural capital to support a qualitative development policy.

(c) It is resolving the conflict between the various competing goals, and involves the continuous pursuit of economic prosperity, social equity and environmental quality.

These are regarded as three dimensions with the resultant vector being technology, it’s a continually developing process. Sustainability is fundamental to every issue in the strategy of planning and indeed for the construction of life on the planet. Sustainable development aims to bring about complete integration of economic, social and environmental matters. Sustainability of the environment is regarded as a state in which human activities do not irreversibly damage the environment in which natural habitats, the global abundance and diversity of plant and animal life are maintained in which the extraction and use of natural resources is within human impacts can be prepared by the earth’s natural and biological processes.

REFERENCES

Adebisi Adedayo (2000). Environmental Sanitation and Waste Management Policies at the Local Level in Nigeria, Department of Geography, University of Ilorin Kwara State. Vol.1. No 1 – 2

Chris. O. Nwoko (2013). Evaluation of Environmental Impact Assessment System in Nigeria. Green Journal of Environmental Management and Policy and Policy Safety, Department of Environmental Technology, Federal University of Technology, PMB 1526, Owerri, Nigeria, Vol. 2(1), pp. 022–031. conwoko2002@yahoo.com.

Fagbemi. S. Akinolu (2012). The Concept of Sustainable Development: A Double- Edge Sword, Department of Public and International Law, Faculty of Law, University of Ibadan, Ibadan. sakinfagbemilawpractive@yahoo.com

Theories of Motivation

INTRODUCTION – MOTIVATION

Motivation is defined as what prompts a person to act in a certain way or at least develop an inclination for specific behavior (Kast and Rosenzweig 1985, 296).

Motivation can be defined as those forces within an individual that push or propel him to satisfy basic needs or wants (Yorks 1976, 21). The level of needs will determine what rewards will satisfy an employee.

Motivation can also be defined as the process that initiates, guides, and maintains goal-oriented behaviors. Motivation is what causes us to act, whether it is getting a glass of water to reduce thirst or reading a book to gain knowledge.

Theories of Motivation

ABRAHAM MASLOW

Abraham Maslow believed that man is inherently good and argued that individuals possess a constantly growing inner drive that has great potential. The needs hierarchy system, devised by Maslow (1954), is a commonly used scheme for classifying human motives. It involves five categories of motives arranged with lower-level needs on the bottom which must be satisfied first, before the higher level needs come into play (Wallace, Goldstein and Nathan 1987, 277). The five general levels of needs as are shown in the following hierarchical order.

Physiological needs: Food, water, sex, and shelter

Safety needs: Protection against danger, threat, and deprivation. Behavior which arouses uncertainty with respect to continued employment or which reflects favoritism or discrimination. Unpredictable administration of policy are powerful motivators of the safety needs in the employment relationship at every level.

Social needs: Giving and receiving of love, friendship, affection, belonging, association, and acceptance.(If the first two levels are fairly well gratified a person becomes keenly aware of the absence of )

Ego needs: Need for achievement, adequacy, strength, and freedom. The essence this is the need for autonomy or independence.

Self-actualization needs: The need to realize one’s potentialities for continued self development and the desire to become more and more of what one is and what one is capable of becoming. The conditions of modern industrial life afford only limited opportunity for the self-actualizing need to find expression.

Two major postulates can be derived from Maslow’s need hierarchy. They are:

(1)A satisfied need is not a motivator of behavior.

(2)To the extent that lower-order needs become satisfied, the next higher-order level of needs becomes the most proponent determinant of behavior

Herzberg’s Motivation Hygiene Theory

Herzberg’s motivation hygiene theory is often called the two factor theory and focuses on those sources of motivation which are pertinent to the accomplishment of work. Herzberg concluded that job satisfaction and dissatisfaction were the products of two separate factors: motivating factors (satisfiers) and hygiene factors (dissatisfiers) Satisfiers respectively:

Satisfiers                                    Dissatisfiers

1. Achievement                               1. Company policy
2. Recognition                                 2. Supervision
3. Work itself                                  3. Working with conditions
4. Responsibility                             4. Interpersonal relations
5. Advancement                              5. Salary
6. Growth                                         6. Status
7. Job security
8. Personal life

(Herzberg, Mousner, and Snyderman, 1959, 59-83)

Herzberg used the term “hygiene” in the medical sense- the sense that it operates to remove hazards from the environment (Duttweiler 1986, 371).

Alderfer’s ERG theory

Alderfer, expanded on Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, created the ERG theory. This theory posits that there are three groups of core needs-existence, relatedness, and growth, hence the label: ERG theory. The existence group is concerned with providing our basic material existence requirements. They include the items that Maslow considered to be physiological and safety needs. The second groups of needs are those of relatedness- the desire we have for maintaining important personal relationships. These social and status desires require interaction with others if they are to be satisfied, and they align with Maslow’s social need and the external component of Maslow’s esteem classification. Finally, Alderfer isolates growth needs as an intrinsic desire for personal development.

HOW DO YOU MOTIVATE WORKER TO HIGHER PERFORMANCE OR PRODUCTION

For one to achieve higher performance or productivity he or she must creates a positive, high-self-esteem workplace which will result higher performance. By applying the theories of motivation as outline above one can easily motivation work to higher performance or production by meeting their physiological needs, safety needs, love and belonging, Esteem / Self-actualization and Self-transcendence.

Steps to motivating workers to higher performance

To perform at their best, individuals have two basic needs in the world of work:

• The Autonomy Need. The first is called “the autonomy need.” This is the need to be seen and respected as an individual, and to stand out for one’s personal performance. It is a need to be recognized for individual achievement or the “I am special” need.
• The Dependency Need. The second need that each person has in the workplace, is “the dependency need.” This is the need that people have to feel a part of something bigger than themselves. People want to be part of a team. It is the need to feel recognized and accepted as part of a group of people in the workplace.

RISK ASSOCIATED WITH INTERNATIONAL TRADE

RISK ASSOCIATED WITH INTERNATIONAL TRADE

Risks in International Trade are the major barriers for the growth to the same. The increase in the export market is highly beneficial to an economy, but on the other hand the increase in imports can be a threat to the economy of that country. It has been the worry of the policy makers to strike the right balance between free trade and restrictions.

International trade can develop an economy, but at the same time certain domestic players can be outperformed by financially stronger multi nationals and forced to close down or get merged. Sometimes these multinational companies become so powerful, especially in smaller countries, that they can dictate political terms to the government for their benefit.

International trade is characteristically costlier in terms of domestic trade. There are a number of reasons such as, tariffs, cost of delay, cost related to differences in legal system, etc.

 International trade exposes exporters and importers to substantial risks, especially when the trading partner is far away or in a country where contracts are hard to enforce.

 The following are types of risk associated with international trade and their various affects.

1. Investment risk
2. Business risk
3. Purchasing power risk
4. Foreign Exchange risk
5. Financial Risk
6. Interest Rate Risk
7. Default risk
8. Political Risk

1. Foreign Exchange Risk

A buyer or seller may deal with foreign currencies in their daily course of business. This implies that they are exposed to fluctuations in foreign exchange market which may result in paying more (by the buyer) or receiving less (from the buyer) in terms of the local currency.

 Exchange rates fluctuate due to a great many factors. Some may be strictly financial but political events can also affect the exchange rates. If there is the threat of military conflict in some part of the world those holding funds there may want to transfer their holdings to the U.S. They consequently exchange their currency for dollars thus driving up the value of the dollar.

Currency Exchange Rate Risk is a financial risk posed by an exposure to unanticipated changes in the exchange rate between two currencies. The exchange rate between currencies fluctuates over time, and can lead to unexpected gains or losses.

Currency exchange rate risk includes transaction exposure, economic exposure, and translation exposure.

2. Interest Rate Risk: Interest rate risk is the risk borne by an interest-bearing asset, such as a floating rate loan. An increase in interest rate will result in buyer or seller paying more interest for their floating rate loan.
3. Political/Sovereign Risk: Political/sovereign risk refers to the complications that buyer or seller may be expose due to unfavourable political decisions or political changes that may vary the expected outcome of an outstanding contract. Examples of political/sovereign risk are changes in fiscal/monetary policy, war, riots, terrorism, trade embargoes, etc.

International trade requires taking into account the risks that are inherent in doing business across political boundaries. These include changes in political environment and the resultant impact on business viability, violence, conflicts, regulatory sanctions imposed by authorities and even cultural issues. Managing them can often hold the key to successful ventures.

International trade is a risky business, especially when it involves countries outside Europe and North America. Among many of the risks involved in it, the political ones are the most difficult to measure, while having the potential of greatest damage as well. The political risks that can confront an international trader can arise in several ways. The most common of these is the ‘change of government’. In a democracy, this can happen in the form of election of a different party to power. Such cases, being quite common in established mature democracies, can often be foreseen to some extent, and hence it is one of those political risks that is comparatively easier to plan for.

Even in a democracy, a democratically elected government can also be removed from power, by overnight political manipulations, like division of the ruling political party, or another leader rebelling from within. This, of course, is a feature of parliamentary democracy. In Presidential form of government, the sudden unexpected change of rule can come by sudden death, or assassination, of the President. Sometimes, this change of government may take place in the State or Local Government, whose policies may be more relevant for that particular trade.

4. Default Risks

Default risks is the chance that companies or individuals will be unable to meet the required payments on their debt obligations. Lenders and investors are exposed to default risk in virtually all forms of credit extensions. To mitigate the impact of default risk, lenders often charge rates of return that correspond the debtor’s level of default risk. A higher level of risk leads to a higher required return.

In International trade exports are more sensitive to financial shocks due to the higher default risk and higher working-capital requirements associated with international trade. … vessel, we can see that it is not uncommon for goods to spend approximately two months in transit.

Credit default risk occurs when a borrower cannot repay the loan. Eventually, usually after a period of 90 days of nonpayment, the loan is written off. Banks are required by law to maintain an account for loan loss reserves to cover these losses.

Banks reduce credit risk by screening loan applicants, requiring collateral for a loan, performing a credit risk analysis, and by diversification of risks.

5. Financial risk:

One of the major financial risks concerned with international business management is fluctuations in foreign exchange. As currency rate for each country may vary due to various economical factors around the globe it may affect organizations in international business. Another risk associated with the financial crisis is the side effect of political leadership changes occurring in the country.

1. Crisis due to Currency Fluctuations: If the value of the currency falls below a certain stage it can directly affect the international business. This effect will be crucial in the case of small business owners having export into international market. Insuring against such crisis is possible but the investment in insurance is also costly.
2. Risk associated with Foreign Exchange: The foreign exchange rate changes affects small business firms having international workers. And if the supplier is also from another country it will also need to be monitored for reducing the risk due to foreign exchange. As these fluctuations in currency is having positive and negative the expectations can not be predicted.
3. Risk Associated with Political Change: Sometimes the change in political leadership can contribute to changes in foreign exchange. There is also chances of policies changing due to leadership change. Additional tax implemented by the political system can also affect the international trade.
4. Business risk: Business risk is the possibility that a company will have lower than anticipated profits, or that it will experience a loss rather than a profit. Business risk is influenced by numerous factors, including sales volume, per-unit price, input costs, competition, overall economic climate and government regulations.

These types of risk greatly affects international trade as it involves a firm/company/country or an individual taking a business adventure into an unfamiliar terrain where he/she is not so certain of the outcome of such business venture. For a company or firm to engage in an international trade they must be ready to take a reasonable business risk and build up strategies that enable them mitigate against such possible risk.

7. Investment risk:

All investments involve risks including possible loss of principal. The following are some general risks associated international trade. Each specific investment approach and product will have its own specific risks and risks will vary. The following are example of investment risk associated with International Trade:

1. Equity market risks: Equity markets are subject to many factors, including economic conditions, government regulations, market sentiment, local and international political events, and environmental and technological issues.
2. Smaller capitalization stock risks: The share prices of small and mid-cap companies may exhibit greater volatility than the share prices of larger capitalization companies. In addition, shares of small and mid-cap companies are often less liquid than larger capitalization companies.
3. Concentration risk: Concentration of investments in a relatively small number of securities, sectors or industries, or geographical regions may significantly affect performance.
4. Fixed income securities market risks: Fixed income securities markets are subject to many factors, including economic conditions, government regulations, market sentiment, and local and international political events. In addition, the market value of fixed income securities will fluctuate in response to changes in interest rates, currency values, and the creditworthiness of the issuer.
5. Below investment grade risks: Lower-rated securities have a significantly greater risk of default in payments of interest and/or principal than the risk of default for investment-grade securities. The secondary market for lower-rated securities is typically much less liquid than the market for investment-grade securities, frequently with significantly more volatile prices and larger spreads between bid and asked price in trading.
6. Credit risk: The value of fixed income security may decline, or the issuer or guarantor of that security may fail to pay interest or principal when due, as a result of adverse changes to the issuer’s or guarantor’s financial status and/or business. In general, lower-rated securities carry a greater degree of credit risk than higher-rated securities.
7. Interest-rate risk: Generally, the value of fixed income securities will change inversely with changes in interest rates. The risk that changes in interest rates will adversely affect investments will be greater for longer-term fixed income securities than for shorter-term fixed income securities.
8. Foreign and emerging markets risk: Investments in foreign markets may present risks not typically associated with domestic markets. These risks may include changes in currency exchange rates; less-liquid markets and less available information; less government supervision of exchanges, brokers, and issuers; increased social, economic, and political uncertainty; and greater price volatility. These risks may be greater in emerging markets, which may also entail different risks from developed markets.
9. Commodities risks: Exposure to the commodities markets may be more volatile than investments in traditional equity or fixed income securities. The value of commodity-linked derivative instruments may be affected by changes in overall market movements, commodity index volatility, interest-rate changes, or events affecting a particular commodity or industry.
10. Currency risk: Investments in currencies, currency derivatives, or similar instruments, as well as in securities that are denominated in foreign currency, are subject to the risk that the value of a particular currency will change in relation to one or more other currencies.
11. Alternatives risks: Alternative investments tend to use leverage, which can serve to magnify potential losses.  Additionally, they can be subject to increased illiquidity, volatility and counterparty risks, among other risks.

 8.     Purchasing power risk:

This is a risk that unexpected changes in consumer prices will penalize an investor’s real return from holding an investment. Because investments from gold to bonds and stock are priced to include expected inflation rates, it is the unexpected changes that produce this risk. Fixed income securities, such as bonds and preferred stock, subject investors to the greatest amount of purchasing power risk since their payments are set at the time of issue and remain unchanged regardless of the inflation rate.

This type of risk have great impact on international trade as the purchasing power of a particular country currency fluctuate as a result of inflation thereby reducing the purchasing power of such currency against its counterpart in international trade. This is currently experienced in the case of Nigeria where the value of Naira against dollars have increased geometrically over the recent past.

CONCLUSION

The increase in the export market is highly beneficial to an economy, but on the other hand the increase in international trade can be a threat to the economy of a country therefore a firm/company/country or individual must be prepared and ready to deal with the various risk associated with international trade.

REFERENCES

Ryan Baird, ( 2009) “The Importance of Country Risk in Determining Trade

Flows: The Preference for a Sure Thing” http://www.allacademic.com/meta/pmla_ apa_research_citation/1/6/7/9/6/p167964_index.html

“Risk source and Management in International Business”, China Business Monthly, February 2010

Ian H. Giddy and Gunter Dufey “The Management of Foreign Exchange Risk” from New York University and University of Michigan

Altman, Edward I., and Anthony Saunders. “Credit risk measurement: Developments over the last 20 years.” Journal of Banking & Finance 21.11 (1997): 1721-1742.

SHORING - Types and functions

INTRODUCTION

Shoring is designated to protect workers from cove-ins when excavating a trench for repairs or new construction, shoring supports walls of a trench through a wooden or metal framework.

Shoring framework typically consists of wooden or metal sheeting along the face of the trench wall supported by uprights, horizontal stringers placed along the uprights, and braced which attach to the stringers and span the excavation.

Shoring is the process of supporting a building vessel, structure or trench with shores (props) when in danger of collapse or during repairs or alterations. Shoring comes from shore a timber or metal prop. Shoring may be vertical, angled, or horizontal. Or they are temporary support given to a wall and floor during alteration work, demolition or underpinning and where structure becomes unsafe. With the primary aim of providing the necessary precaution or many form of collapse or damage to the structure, they render lateral support to walls under the following circumstances:

• Bulging out wall as a result of poor workmanship
• Cracking walls as a result of uneven settlement of subsoil (sub structure)
• Support during alteration.

Raking shores: this is the system of giving temporary support to an unsafe wall. The construction of raking shores also known as inclined shore, varies with the conditions of site in all cases wall-plate 23cm x 5cm to 23cm to 76cm. it size is fixed against the unsafe wall with hooks. The wall plate is further secure to the wall by means of needles which are 10cm x 76cm in section penetrate inside the wall for a distance of about 10cm in turn. The needles are strengthened by providing wooden cleats. The top of the end of the included rakers rest against the needles. At their base the rakers are supported by a sole piece bedded in an inclined position in the ground. The rakers are secured to the sole piece by cleats and dogs. In the soft ground the area of the sole piece in increase so as to distribute the pressure over large area. In places where more rakers are provided, they are bound together by means of hoop. Iron or braces 25cm thick and 15cm wide. The inclination of the outer rakers to the ground should vary between 60⁰ to 75⁰. The sets of shores should be usually placed at 3 to 40m center to center along the wall length.

Function of Raking Shore

Raking shore is provided to support the wall from above the proposed opening to safe guard against shocks and vibrates during wall cutting.

2. Dead or vertical Shore: This system of shoring the vertical members known as dead shores are used to support temporarily the walls, roofs floors etc by providing horizontal member known as needle.

Functions

1. To rebuild the lower part of a detective load bearing wall.
2. To rebuild or replace or deepen the existing foundations which have either becomes unsafe or require strengthening for carrying heavier loads.

• To provide large opening in the existing walls such as doors, windows, or garages at a lower level.

3. Flying or Horizontal Shores: These are types of Horizontal supports that are provided for supporting temporarily the parallel walls of the two adjacent buildings, which may tend to collapse or damage when one of the intermediate buildings has to be pulled down and rebuilt.

Functions

They are used to support the party walls of the houses adjoining the premises being rebuilt. These types of shores are only possible where sap between adjacent building.

These types of shores are only possible where the sap between the two buildings is quite small. They can be used as advantage of allowing passage under them.

HOSPITAL - ORGANIZATION AND STAFF

HOSPITAL – ORGANIZATION AND STAFF

HOSPITAL

A Hospital, as defined by Microsoft Encarta (2009) is an institution that provides a broad range of medical services to sick, injured, or pregnant patients. Hospitals employ medical, nursing, and support staff to provide inpatient care to people who require close medical monitoring and outpatient care to people who need treatment but not constant medical attention. Hospitals provide diagnosis and medical treatment of physical and mental health problems, surgery, rehabilitation, health education programs, and nursing and physician training. Many hospitals also serve as centres for innovative research and medical technology.

HOSPITAL ORGANIZATION AND STAFF

A hospital is a complex institution that coordinates the skills of doctors, nurses, and support care personnel to provide health services. A hospitals also has administrative departments to ensure the efficient and financially sound operation of the institution. Large not-for-profit general hospitals, the most common hospital type, have several levels of organization that include a board of trustees, chief administrative officer, chief of the medical staff, administrative and medical department heads, and a director of nursing.

A hospital’s board of trustees oversees the operation of the hospital by evaluating its financial health and its strategic growth and development. One of the board’s major responsibilities is to hire and assess the performance of the hospital’s chief administrative officer; another is to approve the appointment and retention of the hospital’s physicians. Board members also participate in fund-raising and other philanthropic activities and in community outreach activities that seek to improve the health of the community. Not-for-profit hospitals are charitable institutions that are expected to meet the needs of their communities and their boards of trustees are typically made up of representatives from local businesses and community groups.

The chief administrator of a not-for-profit general hospitals is known as the chief executive officer, president, or administrator, depending on the size and complexity of the hospital’s organization. As the hospital’s top executive, the chief administrator plans for the ongoing financial health of the institution, considering such issues as whether the hospital should remain independent or merge with another institution; expand or reduce specific health services, such as high-cost trauma care; develop relationships with groups of physicians, HMOs, or clinics; or create satellite facilities in nearby cities or towns.

The chief of the medical staff is a physician appointed to direct the work of all the doctors who treat patients in the hospital and to supervise the procedures for adding doctors to the hospital staff. Also called privileges, these procedures define the qualifications needed by doctors and the specific treatments each doctor may perform in the hospitals. The chief of the medical staff takes disciplinary action against doctors who do not follow the rules and regulations of the hospitals, and reviews the work of committees of doctors who evaluate the quality of medical care in the hospital and the use of hospital resources.

Vice presidents, sometimes called directors, of administrative departments are responsible for the daily operation of a hospital. The vice president of finance directs the work of a hospital’s admissions, budget, and cashier’s offices, overseeing the general accounting and internal auditing of the hospital’s finances. Although responsibilities vary in individual institutions, the vice president of materials management usually buys, stores, and maintains supplies, while the vice president of clinical engineering buys and maintains hospital equipment, including high-tech instruments and machines. The vice president of environmental services supervises the laundry, power plant, and the hospital at large and ensures the safety and security of all staff and patients.

A physician heads each of the many medical departments found within most not-for-profit general hospitals. Most hospitals have separate departments organized by medical specialties, including internal medicine, surgery, pediatrics, obstetrics and gynecology, radiology and diagnostic testing, pathology, anesthesiology, and sometimes psychiatry or neurology.
The director of nursing supervises the work of nurses, the hospital’s largest group of health care providers, to ensure the quality and efficiency of the care they provide patients. Nurses provide round-the-clock care that includes giving patients medication, monitoring health status, and maintaining personal hygiene. Nurses also care for hospital outpatients in the emergency department, ambulatory surgery center, and clinics. They provide specialized services in intensive care units, surgical suites, and trauma units.

In addition to medical, surgical, and nursing care, a hospital also provides many other professional services, all of which have a department head who reports to the hospital’s chief administrator. Dietary or nutrition staff ensure that hospitalized patients receive food or dietary supplements that maintain and improve health. The pharmacy dispenses the medications that are ordered by doctors and advises doctors on alternative drug regimens for individual patients.

The social services department links patients with agencies and professionals inside and outside the hospital that can provide patients with financial help, counseling, long-term care, or assistance in the home. Educational outreach programs not only acquaint community members with the direct services offered by the hospital, they also teach individuals about disease prevention and health maintenance.

BUILDING SURVEYING - Definition & Types

BUILDING SURVEYING

Building survey is the inspection and investigation of the construction and services of a property in sufficient depth to enable a surveyor to advise what impact the condition of that property will have upon a client/owner (Wikipedia, 2011).

The extent of the survey must be sufficient to enable the surveyor to advise upon any future problems that may occur with the various components of the building. The surveyor must also be in a position to advise the client/owner of where the property does not meet the requirements of modern legislation and of any alterations that must be carried out in order to comply with those requirements.

It is important to bear in mind that the building survey is the consideration of what is found applied to the particular needs of each client.

TYPES OF BUILDING SURVEY

i. Diagnostic survey – A diagnostic investigation sets out to establish on a balance of probabilities the nature and cause of defect(s). The investigation methodology is recorded, as are the steps, so that the conclusion is supported by the evidence of the investigation. This type of investigation and reporting form the majority of the building surveys usually carried out.

ii. Repair of failure(s) survey – A survey carried out intended to inform the client why, for example, the chimney fell through the upper floor and what they should do about it.

iii. Partial inspection survey – A survey that focuses on a particular part of a building. Instructions might come in the form of ‘the architrave around the lounge window is growing mushrooms, can I eat them?’ With this type of survey, it is important to confirm what has specifically been inspected.

iv. Company sales / change in ownership survey – This might involve the investigation of the assets of a company and their condition prior to the sale or acquisition of the company.

v. Sale of property survey – A survey undertaken to assess the condition of a multi-story office block, factory, house, shopping centre, aircraft hanger etc, required prior to the prospective purchaser signing on the dotted line.

vi. Maintenance management survey – A survey undertaken so that essential repairs may be designed and a budget produced for annual repairs or for maintenance budgets.

vii. Pre-emptive maintenance survey – A survey undertaken to identify the components which should be routinely replaced ahead of failure.

viii. Reinstatement survey – A survey undertaken in order to produce a building Schedule of Condition, for example, prior to tenant possession. The Schedule of Condition should be appended to the lease agreement so that a clear and accurate record on the state of the demised premises at time of possession is known.

A further reinstatement survey should be carried out when the tenant vacates the building. The Schedule of Condition produced on this occasion, should include costs associated with the reinstatement work that is required to be carried out by the tenant under the terms of the lease agreement.

ix. Access audit survey – A survey undertaken to advise upon those parts of a building which form an unsafe element to the building or which may act as a barrier to access for those with limited sight or mobility.

It is evident that property managers, landlords and tenants are becoming increasingly aware of the benefit of appointing a qualified surveyor to carry out tailored building surveys to suit particular client requirement.

BUILDING SURVEYING - Definition & Types

BUILDING SURVEYING

Building survey is the inspection and investigation of the construction and services of a property in sufficient depth to enable a surveyor to advise what impact the condition of that property will have upon a client/owner (Wikipedia, 2011).

The extent of the survey must be sufficient to enable the surveyor to advise upon any future problems that may occur with the various components of the building. The surveyor must also be in a position to advise the client/owner of where the property does not meet the requirements of modern legislation and of any alterations that must be carried out in order to comply with those requirements.

It is important to bear in mind that the building survey is the consideration of what is found applied to the particular needs of each client.

TYPES OF BUILDING SURVEY

i. Diagnostic survey – A diagnostic investigation sets out to establish on a balance of probabilities the nature and cause of defect(s). The investigation methodology is recorded, as are the steps, so that the conclusion is supported by the evidence of the investigation. This type of investigation and reporting form the majority of the building surveys usually carried out.

ii. Repair of failure(s) survey – A survey carried out intended to inform the client why, for example, the chimney fell through the upper floor and what they should do about it.

iii. Partial inspection survey – A survey that focuses on a particular part of a building. Instructions might come in the form of ‘the architrave around the lounge window is growing mushrooms, can I eat them?’ With this type of survey, it is important to confirm what has specifically been inspected.

iv. Company sales / change in ownership survey – This might involve the investigation of the assets of a company and their condition prior to the sale or acquisition of the company.

v. Sale of property survey – A survey undertaken to assess the condition of a multi-story office block, factory, house, shopping centre, aircraft hanger etc, required prior to the prospective purchaser signing on the dotted line.

vi. Maintenance management survey – A survey undertaken so that essential repairs may be designed and a budget produced for annual repairs or for maintenance budgets.

vii. Pre-emptive maintenance survey – A survey undertaken to identify the components which should be routinely replaced ahead of failure.

viii. Reinstatement survey – A survey undertaken in order to produce a building Schedule of Condition, for example, prior to tenant possession. The Schedule of Condition should be appended to the lease agreement so that a clear and accurate record on the state of the demised premises at time of possession is known.

A further reinstatement survey should be carried out when the tenant vacates the building. The Schedule of Condition produced on this occasion, should include costs associated with the reinstatement work that is required to be carried out by the tenant under the terms of the lease agreement.

ix. Access audit survey – A survey undertaken to advise upon those parts of a building which form an unsafe element to the building or which may act as a barrier to access for those with limited sight or mobility.

It is evident that property managers, landlords and tenants are becoming increasingly aware of the benefit of appointing a qualified surveyor to carry out tailored building surveys to suit particular client requirement.