THE ROLE OF AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING IN NATIONAL ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

INTRODUCTION – AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING

Agricultural engineering is the application of engineering principles to any process associated with producing agriculturally based goods and management of our natural resources. The discipline concerns itself with development of labour-saving, farm machines, farm buildings, irrigation and drainage systems, and processes for preserving and converting agricultural products to useful feed, and fibre products. Thus we can see that contrary to the erroneous understanding of many people, agricultural engineering is not synonymous to tractorization. Why people have thought that agricultural engineering is synonymous to tractorization is because the earliest engineering intervention had much to do with the reduction of drudgery with the use of tractor, for a very long time. 

Agricultural engineers must have a wealth of knowledge and skills to function effectively in the multiplicity of the agricultural and agribusiness industries. The agricultural engineer helps to make farming sustainable, safe, and environmentally friendly. They analyze agricultural operations and weigh the use of new technologies and methods to increase yields, improve land use, and conserve resources like seed, water, fertilizers, pesticides and fuel. The engineer recommends strategies to protect the health, safety and security of worker’s, animals and agricultural products.

Agriculture engineers find better ways to reduce crop loss from field damage, during handling, sorting, packing and processing. The warehousing of food and fiber are an important part of the agriculture industry. The agricultural engineer is the person who plans the heating, cooling, ventilation, postharvest handling, logistics and more.

Agricultural engineers develop methods and design equipment for land preparation, planting and harvesting. They incorporate automation, precision and smart technologies “intelligence” to new and existing equipment. Sensors (including biosensors) are combined with microcomputers, controllers, artificial intelligence and other software, to optimize efficiency, sustainability, and the reliability of our food, feed, fiber and fuel economy.

Agricultural engineers may perform tasks such as planning, supervising and managing the building of dairy effluent schemes, irrigation, drainage, flood and water control systems, performing environmental impact assessments, agricultural product processing and interpret research results and implement relevant practices. A large percentage of agricultural engineers work in academia or for government agencies such as the United States Department of Agriculture or state agricultural extension services. Some are consultants, employed by private engineering firms, while others work in industry, for manufacturers of agricultural machinery, equipment, processing technology, and structures for housing livestock and storing crops. Agricultural engineers work in production, sales, management, research and development, or applied science.

CONCEPT OF AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING

Man was created with a catalogue of materials of both living and non-living things intended to provide comfort for him. Man’s ability to recognize this fact cannot be underestimated, and thus the expertise to harness the relevant materials in engineering to bring about this comfort. Because each of the catalogues of human problem and desires would require a unique approach to solving it, it will therefore require the use of many engineering branches. Some of which are Building, Civil, Electrical, and Mechanical engineering. The problems often encountered in Agriculture are such that the expertise of a single branch of engineering, some of which is outlined above, is insufficient to provide the needed solution. The expertise of more than one of the branches and varied combinations may be required to solve such a problem. It is for this reason that agricultural engineering emerged. Agricultural Engineering is therefore the application of any or all branches of engineering knowledge to the extent that such knowledge may be used in farming in all its ramifications and in rural living.

OBJECTIVE OF AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING

The overall objectives of Agricultural Engineering is to provide a conducive working environment for the farmer and assure him that there is dignity in farming, improve his economic situation and make food available in adequate quantity and quality at the right time of need and at a reasonable cost to consumers. These objectives are pursued through one or more of the following:

     i.        Reduction in farm hazards: The causes of these hazards are identified and solutions given. This ensures that the farmers labour is not in vain.

  ii.        Reduction of drudgery in agricultural operations: Agricultural engineering intervention is to develop machines and equipment that can be used in performing agricultural operations to reduce stress on farmers.

  iii.        Ensuring the availability of agricultural products all year-round: To meet all year-round demand of seasonal crops, they have to be processed and stored. Structures for long – term storage have to be built.

  iv.        Enhancement of the quality of life for the farmer. Agricultural engineering provides conveniences on the farm, such conveniences include farm houses, good farm roads etc.

OPTIONS IN AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING

Agricultural Engineering embraces a variety of speciality areas. As new challenges, technology and information emerges, speciality areas are transformed, new ones re created, with many overlapping with one or more other areas. Areas of specialization of Agricultural Engineering include:

    i.        Farm Power and Machinery Engineering: This aspect of Agricultural Engineering deals with the design, maintenance and repairs of plant and machineries, transporting and processing machines for biological materials, other power units such as water pumps, electric power generation sets, small engines etc.

  ii.        Structures and Environmental Engineering: This aspect deals with the development of farmstead and infrastructures which include farm houses, access roads, animal housing, green houses, storage structures and water handling facilities such as dams and canals.

iii.        Soil and Water Engineering: Where does water go after it falls on the soil? This aspect deals with the recommendation of good soil and water conservation practices, design and management of irrigation, drainage and erosion control. This know-how is used to ensure soil conservation and enable crops grow more efficiently while reducing erosion and protecting water quality.

 iv.        Crop Processing and Storage Engineering: Over thirty percent (30%) of produce of various agricultural crops are lost annually during storage and processing because the experts in crop processing and storage are not engaged in the agro-industries. This option therefore, deals in the design, construction and maintenance of crop processing and storage equipment and systems.

   v.        Food Engineering: This is a specialized area dealing with processes and machinery required for processing agricultural products into food

The discipline of Agricultural Engineering is currently undergoing major and important changes as it responds to perturbations in the global economy. These changes are as a result of some technologies that are still unfolding. These Emerging Technologies include; Information Technology; Biotechnology; Environmental Engineering and Renewable Energy.

APPLICATION OF AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING

The description of Agricultural Engineering plays a pivotal and important role in the development of Nigeria. These are in the areas of food security, reduction of drudgery in agricultural work, rural infrastructural development, soil and water resources management, environmental management, improvement in the quality of life of farmers, sustainable agriculture and industrial development.

Agricultural engineering graduates have in the past found jobs in the following areas of economy; Government, Self-employment, Educational Institutions, Research and development Institution, International Organizations and other areas not usually recognized by employers of labour.

THE ROLE OF AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING IN NATIONAL ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

    i.          Food Security: Food security has recently become an important concept in sub-Saharan Africa. For Nigeria, the idea of food security revolves around ensuring that there is readily available food in the right quantity and quality and at an affordable price.

Food security can only be achieved if the food is produced in abundant quantity and in fact at commercial scale. Even when food is abundantly produced, if it is not taken care of, most of it will be lost to deterioration.

The Federal Government and some States in Nigeria have recognized the need to ensure food security and so they established a number of institutions to ensure food security. These include the Federal Strategic Food Reserve under the Federal Ministry pf Agriculture and other parastatals in the Ministry. In all these areas, Agricultural Engineering principles are practiced to ensure that there is adequate supply of food all year round.

  ii.          Reduction of Drudgery in Agricultural Work: The traditional farming method and system in Nigeria is characterised by the use of primitive tools and technology. These include the hoe, machete, and axe. A visit to any rural farming community will reveal how tedious it is to work with hand tools. For toiling under the sun for hours, most farmers can only cover a few fraction of a hectare. The drudgery involved in Nigerian traditional agricultural system can be seen on the faces and body of farmers.

With the introduction of machines, tedious operations hitherto handled by man are mechanised. Operating machines is less tedious than manual operations. The reduction in drudgery that comes with the introduction of machine makes agricultural work to be more attractive to the younger generation. This has a number of implications including a reduction in rural-urban migration, and improved dignity of the agricultural worker.

iii.          Rural Infrastructural Development: Most large-scale agricultural development programmes involve the development of basic rural infrastructure. These infrastructures include water, roads, electricity, schools, markets, energy supply systems, maintenance systems, processing systems and waste management and control systems. When these infrastructures are provided for the farm, the rural population benefits.

Thus, agricultural engineering has been referred to as a catalyst for rural infrastructural development. This is because with the development of the infrastructure listed above, the standard of living of rural dwellers is improved as they have access to basic necessities of life.

 iv.          Natural Resources Conservation: The natural resources on which the practice of agriculture is based are soil, water and air. One of the important roles of agricultural engineering is to ensure an optimum management of these resources. This will ensure that these resources are conserved. If soil and water resources are used without conservation, then one day, the resources will deplete to a point where they can no longer support plant and animal life.

Soil and Water Engineering option in Agricultural Engineering ensures that soil and water are conserved and reclaimed where necessary. Agricultural Engineering practices such as conservation tillage, terracing, erosion control, etc, are used for soil and water conservation. These are practised by Agricultural Engineers in many institutions in Nigeria including the River Basin Development Authorities and Agricultural Development Projects.

   v.          Environmental Management: A major area of Agricultural Engineering deals with environmental management. The control and hence management of the environment is achieved in different area. First, is the control of the environment (moisture, temperature, humidity, etc) of the environment of animals and crops. Agricultural Engineering provides required environmental conditions for the growth of animals and crops. After harvest, technologies are provided for managing the environments under storage. The second aspect of environmental control and management involves solid and liquid waste disposal. Agriculture produces waste in different forms – animal dung, crop residue, damaged food etc. the practice of engineering in agriculture provides the techniques for managing these wastes by recycling and converting some of them to useful products.

The third area of environmental management includes the control of the use of natural resources, forestry and horticulture where machines and systems are provided for environmental beautification.

 vi.          Quality of Life of Farmers: With the practice of agricultural engineering the quality of life of farmers is improved. Engineering in agriculture comes with it, mechanization of production. For mechanization to succeed, it has to be practiced on relatively large-scale farms. This results in farmers shifting from subsistence to commercial farming. With the scale of production increased, farmers can make more profits. More profits mean that they can have more disposable income, which they can invest in other areas of economic venture. In addition, they can now buy what they need to live decent lives and improve on their standard of living. This is the main goal of any national development strategy.

vii.          Sustainable Agriculture: A sustainable agricultural system is one that operates in such a way that the ability of future generations to operate is not compromised. Sustainable agriculture is therefore practiced in such a way the future generations can practice their own agriculture. In other words, the resources used for agriculture should be used in such a way that they are not depleted to a point where they cannot support agriculture for future generations. Agricultural Engineering provides technologies for conserving resources (Soil, Water, Energy and Funds) while producing enough food for the present generation. This is achieved through optimization techniques, which Agricultural engineering offers.

viii.          Industrial Development: When engineering is applied in agriculture, more food is produced and the variety and type of food increase. It means there will be more food in the economy than what is needed for consumption. This situation fuels the development of industries for processing the excess food into industrial raw materials either for local consumption or foe export. For example, it is now common knowledge that cassava is processed into industrial raw materials of different forms. With industries springing up, more employment opportunities are created and government revenue improves through more tax revenue. Thus, this can lead to a buoyant economy and citizens that are more gainfully employed.

ix.          Job creation: Agricultural engineering provides job opportunities to thousands of employee in Nigeria which has impacted positively on the economic development of Nigeria economy. The following are areas in agricultural engineering provides enormous career opportunities   

a.   Government Ministries: Nigeria operates three tiers of government, namely, federal, state, and local government. Each of these tiers of government operates ministries where agricultural engineers are employed. At the federal level these include Ministries of Agriculture, Water Resources, Environment, Science and Technology. Each of the Ministries has departments under which many Agricultural Engineers are contributing their quota towards national development. At the state and local government levels, similar ministries exist and each of them has an engineering division.

b.   Government Parastatals: There are many government agencies, which are supervised by some ministries or are directly supervised by the Chief Executives of the states or at the federal level by the Presidency. Some of these have been phased out but many of them are still operational and since their services are agricultural based, they employ agricultural engineers. These include Tractor and Equipment Hiring companies, Environmental Protection Agencies in the state and federal level, National Centre for Agricultural Mechanization, River Basin Development Authorities, Erosion and Flood Control Programmes, etc.

c.   Private Companies and Industries: In the private sector, there are many opportunities for Agricultural Engineers in the service and production industry. In this sector, there are companies who provide agricultural services with engineering content. These include companies involved in the marketing and maintenance of agricultural machinery, agrochemicals and provision of agricultural services of different forms. Companies of this category include Tractor and Equipment (Division of UAC), Diezengoff, Leventies Technical, etc, and a host of other smaller indigenous companies. In the production sector, there are food processing companies and equipment manufacturing companies, flour mills, rice mills, tractor assembly plants, beverage manufacturers, confectionaries manufacturers etc.

d.   Educational Institution: Educational institutions in Nigeria include Colleges of Agriculture, Education, and Technology. There are also Polytechnics and Universities. Some of these Institutions have Department of Agricultural Engineering as well as Farm Operation Centre where Agricultural Engineers are employed.

e.   Research and Development Institution: There are many Research and Development (R&D) institutions in Nigeria. Under the Federal Ministry of Agriculture, there are over 18 Agricultural research Institutes. Each of the institute has an Agricultural Engineering Department as well as a field demonstration farm and industrial development units where the Agricultural Engineer works.

f.    Self Employment: Self employment is an area that has not been fully explored or exploited by Agricultural Engineers. Opportunities exist in consultancy field in almost all government parastatals and the NGOs, as well as companies in the private sector. These include all areas of project feasibility, implementation, monitoring and evaluation. Many food processing industries need agricultural raw materials, which can be supplied by Agricultural Engineers, especially those interested in post harvest systems. There are also wide ranges of opportunities in storage.

g.   Other areas: There are other areas of employment, which are usually not recognized by employers of labour. Usually, the tendency by Human Resources Personnel in companies is to exclude agricultural engineering discipline when they are looking for staff, even in areas where agricultural engineers by their training will do better than other engineers. For example, in a recent advertisement for jobs by Niger Delta Development Commission, Agricultural Engineering was not listed. Yet the Commission’s business is to develop an area where 95% of the inhabitants are farmers.

SUMMARY

 Agricultural engineering is the application of engineering principles to any process associated with producing agriculturally based goods and management of our natural resources.  Agricultural engineering is more than just tractorisation. Agricultural Engineering is a build-up of other engineering disciplines. There are numerous objectives that Agricultural engineering aims to achieve and have contributed enormously for national economic development in the area of food production, employment opportunities, industrial development, sustainable agriculture, quality of life of farmers, environmental management, natural resources conservation, rural infrastructural development, reduction of drudgery in agricultural work, food security etc.

CONCLUSION

Agricultural Engineering is the bedrock of agricultural development and its neglect is a potential threat to the future survival of any country. Most of the countries who in recent times cried out for international aids are where the agricultural system has failed either due to drought, insect invasion or low agricultural input. Interestingly, most of these problems are what agricultural engineering as a profession could have arrested given the facilities and challenges. The profession has great potentials to solve most of the problems facing agriculture especially in developing countries.

 

REFERENCES

1.   Mijinyawa, Y. (2005). Agricultural Engineering Education in Nigeria. Agricultural Engineering International: the CIGR Ejournal. Invited Overview Paper No. 10. Vol. VII, August 2005.

2.   Onwualu, A.P. (ed) (2001). Agricultural Engineering Practice in Nigeria: Nigerian Institute of Agricultural Engineers (NIAE) book of achievement. Publ. NIAE (A division of the Nigerian Society of Engineers).

3.   Onwualu, A.P. (ed) (2001). Agricultural Engineering Practice in Nigeria: Nigerian Institute of Agricultural Engineers (NIAE) book of achievement. Publ. NIAE (A division of the Nigerian Society of Engineers).

4.   Brown, R.H. (ed). (1988). CRC handbook of engineering in agriculture. Boca Raton, FL.: CRC Press. ISBN 0-8493-3860-3.

5.   Field, H. L., Solie, J. B., & Roth, L. O. (2007). Introduction to agricultural engineering technology: a problem solving approach. New York: Springer. ISBN 0-387-36913-9.

Advantages of Hardwired Control Unit over the Micro Program Control Unit

Hardwired Control Unit

Hardwired control is a control mechanism that generates control signals by using an appropriate finite state machine (FSM). Microprogrammed control is a control mechanism that generates control signals by reading a memory called a control storage (CS) that contains control signals. Although microprogrammed control seems to be advantageous to implement CISC machines, since CISC requires systematic development of sophisticated control signals, there is no intrinsic difference between these 2 types of control.

The pair of a “microinstruction-register” and a “control storage address register” can be regarded as a “state register” for hardwired control. Note that a control storage can be regarded as a combinational logic circuit. We can assign any 0,1 values to each output corresponding to each address, that can be regarded as the input for a combinational logic circuit. This is a truth table.

It is implemented as logic circuits. Hardwired control and micro programmed control. In the hardwired organization, the control logic is implemented with gates, flip-flops, decoders, and other digital cirn. In the micro programmed organization, the control information is stored in a control memory.

The control memory is programmed to initiate the required sequence of micro operations. A hardwired control, as the name implies, re¬quires changes in the wiring among the various components if the design has to be modified or changed. In the micro programmed control, any required changes or modifications can be done by updating the microprogram in control memory.

The block diagram of the control unit is shown. It consists of two decoders, a sequence counter, and a number of control logic gates. An instruction read from memory is placed in the instruction register (IR). The position of this register in the common bus system is indicated. It is divided into three parts: the I bit, the operation code, and bits 0 through 11. The operation code in bits 12 through 14 are decoded with a 3 x 8 decoder. The eight outputs of the decoder are designated by the symbols D0 through D7.

The subscripted decimal number is equivalent to the binary value of the corresponding opera¬tion code. Bit 15 of the instruction is transferred to a flip-flop designated by the symbol I. Bits 0 through 11 are applied to the control logic gates. The 4-bit sequence counter can count in binary from 0 through 15.

The outputs of the counter are decoded into 16 timing signals T0through, flip-flops, decoders etc.) in the hardware. This organization is very complicated if we have a large control unit.

In this organization, if the design has to be modified or changed, requires changes in the wiring among the various components. Thus the modification of all the combinational circuits may be very difficult.

Hardwired Control Unit is fast because control signals are generated by combinational circuits. The delay in generation of control signals depends upon the number of gates.

An instruction read from memory is placed in the instruction register (IR). The instruction register is divided into three parts: the I bit, operation code, and address part. First 12-bits (0-11) to specify an address, next 3-bits specify the operation code (opcode) field of the instruction and last left most bit specify the addressing mode I. I = 0 for direct address I = 1 for indirect address CPU is partitioned into Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) and Control Unit (CU).

The function of control unit is to generate relevant timing and control signals to all operations in the computer. It controls the flow of data between the processor and memory and peripherals.

The control unit directs the entire computer system to carry out stored program instructions. The control unit must communicate with both the arithmetic logic unit (ALU) and main memory.

The control unit instructs the arithmetic logic unit that which logical or arithmetic operation is to be performed. The control unit co-ordinates the activities of the other two units as well as all peripherals and auxiliary storage devices linked to the computer.

Hardwired control units are implemented through use of sequential logic units, featuring a finite number of gates that can generate specific results based on the instructions that were used to invoke those responses.Hardwired control units are generally faster than microprogrammed designs.

Their design uses a fixed architecture—it requires changes in the wiring if the instruction set is modified or changed. This architecture is preferred in reduced instruction set computers (RISC) as they use a simpler instruction set.

A controller that uses this approach can operate at high speed; however, it has little flexibility, and the complexity of the instruction set it can implement is limited.

The hardwired approach has become less popular as computers have evolved. Previously, control units for CPUs used ad-hoc logic, and they were difficult to design.

Major Advantages of Hardwired Control Unit

1. It uses flags, decoder, logic gates and other digital circuits.

2. As name implies it is a hardware control unit.

3. On the basis of input Signal output is generated.

4. Difficult to design,test and implement.

6. Inflexible to modify.

7. Faster mode of operation.

8. Expensive and high error.

9. Used in RISC processor.

10. Faster than micro- programmed control unit.

11. Can be optimized to produce fast mode of operation.

12. It has the advantage that it can be optimized to produce a fast mode of operation

CISC also can be implemented by using hardwired control:

In the above sense, microprogrammed control is not always necessary to implement CISC machines. Hardwired control also can be used for implementing sophisticated CISC machines. The bases of this opinion are as follows:

1. The same field configuration (state assignment) can be used for both of these two types of control. This is clear because of the above identification.

2. We can use any large FSM, that has horizontal microcode like state assignment, since the delay for the FSM does not matter at all so long as it is less than or equal to the delay for the data-path that includes adders, shifters and so on, since the FSM works in parallel with the data-path.

3. The horizontal microcode like state assignment has become very easy to be implemented because of the spread of the hardware description language (HDL). In Verilog HDL, g`defineh statements enable us to get perfect net-list for any large FSMs in a very short time by using appropriate logic synthesizers. “Parameter” statements also can be used for the state assignment in Verilog HDL.

CISCs and RISCs are two major different types of ordinary SISD machines. Since hardwired control has been historically faster, both of these two types of machines are implemented by using hardwired control in our microcomputer design educational environment City-1.

In 1996, that was the first year of City-1, an example description named CISC-1 with an FSM that uses a horizontal microcode like state assignment was given to all of junior students of the Department of Computer Engineering, Faculty of Information Sciences, Hiroshima City University. They succeeded.

Micro Programed Control Unit

The control memory is assumed to be a ROM, within which all control information is permanently stored. The control memory address register specifies the address of the microinstruction, and  the control data register holds the microinstruction read from memory.

The microinstruction contains a control word that specifies one or more micro-operations for the data processor. Once these operations are executed, the control must determine the next address.

The location of the next microinstruc¬tion may be the one next in sequence, or it may be located somewhere else in the control memory. For this reason it is necessary to use some bits of the present microinstruction to control the generation of the address of the next microinstruction.

The next address may also be a function of external input conditions. While the microoperations are being executed, the next address is computed in the next address generator circuit and then transferred into the control address register to read the next microinstruction.

Thus a microinstruc-tion contains bits for initiating microoperations in the data processor part and bits that determine the address sequence for the control memory.

The next address generator is sometimes called a microprogram sequencer, as it determines the address sequence that is read from control memory. The address of the next microinstruction can be specified in several ways, depending on the sequencer inputs.

Typical functions of a microprogram sequencer are incrementing the control address register by one, loading into the control address register an address from control memory, transferring an external address, or loading an initial address to start the control operations.

The control data register holds the present microinstruction while the next address is computed and read from memory. The data register is some-times called a pipeline register.

It allows the execution of the microoperations specified by the control word simultaneously with the generation of the next microinstruction. This configuration requires a two-phase clock, with one clock applied to the address register and the other to the data register.

The system can operate without the control data register by applying a single-phase clock to the address register. The control word and next-address information are taken directly from the control memory. It must be realized that a ROM operates as a combinational circuit, with the address value as the input and the corresponding word as the output.

The content of the specified word in ROM remains in the output wires as long as its address value remains in the address register. No read signal is needed as in a random-access memory. Each clock pulse will execute the microoperations specified by the control word and also transfer a new address to the control address register.

In the example that follows we assume a single-phase clock and therefore we do not use a control data register. In this way the address register is the only component in the control system that receives clock pulses. The other two components: the sequencer and the control memory are combinational circuits and do not need a clock.

The main advantage of the microprogrammed control is the fact that once the hardware configuration is established; there should be no need for further hardware or wiring changes.

If we want to establish a different control sequence for the system, all we need to do is specify a different set of microin¬structions for control memory. The hardware configuration should not be changed for different operations; the only thing that must be changed is the microprogram residing in control memory.

Disadvantage of micro-programmed control unit

1. Slower compared to hardwired control unit.

REFERENCES

Patterson, David; Hennessy, John (2012). Computer Organization and Design: The Hardware/Software Interface, 4th ed., revised. Morgan Kaufmann. ISBN 978-0-12-374750-1.

Von Neumann, John (1945), First Draft of a Report on the EDVAC (PDF), Moore School of Electrical Engineering, University of Pennsylvania

Englander, Irv (2009). The Architecture of Computer Hardware, Systems Software, & Networking, 4th Ed. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. p. 200. ISBN 978-0-471-71542-9.

Barkalov, Alexander (2009). Logic synthesis for FSM based control units / Alexander Barkalov and LarysaTitarenko. Berlin: Springer. ISBN 978-3-642-04308-6.

Wiśniewski, Remigiusz (2009). Synthesis of compositional microprogram control units for programmable devices. ZielonaGóra: University of ZielonaGóra. p. 153. ISBN 978-83-7481-293-1.

OFFICE TECHNOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT: INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY CAREER OPPORTUNITIES FOR ITS TRAINEES

Information Technology Career Opportunities Office Technology and Management

ABSTRACT

This paper examines the Information Technology Career Opportunities Office Technology and Management offers to its trainees.  Office technology and management formerly known as secretarial studies guarantees prompt and decent employment for students who have competent Office Technological skills.  Office Technology and management exposes its trainees to many opportunities in the  Information Technology industry which they may clutch such as taking a career in Web design/Web development, Database administration, internetpreneurship, data processing, graphic design and Information Technology Consultancy. Students, after graduation could also go entrepreneurial to establish small-scale businesses of different types. The paper submits among others that to obtain qualitative Office Technology and Management graduates in the 21^st century, the curriculum for Office Technology and Management programme should be redesigned and enlarged to accommodate courses that are in touch with the realities of the business world of today.  Students’ positive attitude towards innovations must be activated and interest developed in Information Technology.

INTRODUCTION: INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

As the reliance on technology continues to expand in office, the role and chances of Office Manager has greatly evolved.  Office automation and organizational restructuring have led professional Office Managers to assume responsibilities that were once reserved for managerial staff. Office technology and management creates awareness, develops the potentials in man to subdue and harness the resources in his environment for the betterment of himself and his society.

Office is any place where business, clerical and professional activities take place.  Management is an executive ability to handle a business.  Hence, office management is the administrative handling, controlling and maintaining a balanced process of work inside the office of an organization whether big or small, which is necessary to achieve the best service it can provide to the people who will receive a great benefit (Wikipedia, 2013).

Office technology according to Ekpenyong (2008) involves the use of new inventions or devices in an office to transform, or change the process of office work. It is this rapid change in the technology of office work through the use of machines to do the work that was previously done by hand that explains what we call office technology/automation. In other words, the use of machines such as computers, electronic mail system, among others, is called technology/automation. Advances in Information Technology and increased computerisation have upgraded secretarial work, as they have led to a decrease in the quantity of more routine and mundane work, and to an increase in the quality and accuracy of the work produced by Office managers.

Information Technology was defined by French (1996) in Nworgu (2007) as a broad based technology (including its methods, management and application) that supports the creation, storage, manipulation and communication of information.  In addition , Dajur, Irorakpor, Leka, Muhammad and Okoro (2011) defined Information Technology as digital devices made up of computers and telephones with varying capacities for information processing, which has become today’s office manager’s management tool.  Through operation of Management Information Systems (MIS), ICT is used as a major management tool to create, store, and organize, retrieve and use information relating to staff, operations, costs, examination and other records.

UNESCO (2010) defines career as a sequence of attitudes and behaviours that are associated with work and that relate to our life experience, it is an integration of our personality with our job activities.  The modern technology has changed the traditional role of office workers just as it has changed the way that offices operate.  The clerical worker of yesterday has become the information manager of today.  A consensus (agreement) exists among psychologists that each person possesses certain abilities, interests, personality traits and other characteristics.  It is also agreed upon that when these characteristics are known and put into appropriate use, the individual is more likely to become a happier person, a more effective worker and a more useful citizen.  In other words, knowing oneself and knowing the opportunities existing in one’s environment, and especially knowing what one can do that employers would be willing to pay for can assist such an individual make good vocational choice and adjustment.

UNESCO (2010) added that the concept of career had many meanings.  It means differently to different people.  To most people, a career is a series of separate but related experiences that occur in the process of moving upward in their chosen occupation or profession.  Traditionally, this process involved increases in salary, responsibility, status, prestige, and power.  But today an individual can remain in the same job, developing new skills, without necessary moving upward in an organization.  It is also becoming common for people to move laterally among various jobs in different fields and different organizations. The concept of career applies not only to work for pay, but a variety of other life pursuits, such as homemaking and volunteer work. A layman sees career as any of the following:

1. Moving upward in one’s chosen field of work – making more money.
2. The particular occupation for which you are trained.
3. General progression of your working or professional life.
4. A goal in life that is fulfilled through a job or series of job
5. One’s calling in life; a person’s occupation; an individual’s work and life roles over their life span.

On the other hand, Akinwale (1999) in UNESCO (2010) has this to say, “That career is a behavioral and attitudinal process associated with the past, present and possible future practices, ideas and activities in relation to the aspirations and interest of an individual”.  According to him, a career is a continuous work process over time.  It is associated with short and long term objectives that are highly relevant to growth and development of interest and work.

ORIGIN OF OFFICE TECHNOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT EDUCATION

Office Technology and management started in the United States of America in the 17^th and 18^th centuries as secretarial studies.  By the 19^th and 20th centuries the course expanded rapidly to some developed countries and spread to developing countries (Wikipedia, 2012).

Wikipedia (2012) stated that today, Office Technology and Management is a specialized phase of vocational education that prepares students to enter teaching and office occupations as capable and intelligent members of the labour force.  Women are no strangers to Office Technology and Management education. They started to enter the vocation in the late 1880s about the same time when the adding machine, typewriters and telephone were invented.  Since then secretarial education has undergone a lot of transformation in all ramifications in order to meet changing office work and environment.  The information and communication technology has taken secretarial education beyond the level imagined by its inventors.  It has also provided job opportunities for both women and men.  The use of office managerial services permeates all facets of a country’s socio-economic and political life.  For example, Office managers – products of Office technology and management education – usually work in offices with other professionals in schools, hospitals, corporate settings, or in legal and medical offices.

Office managers and administrative assistants are employed in organizations of every type.  They are employed in firms providing services ranging from education and health to legal and business services.  Others work for firms engaged in manufacturing, construction, wholesale and retail trade, transportation, and communication.  Banks, insurance companies, investment firms, and real estate firms are also important employers, as well as Federal, State, and local government agencies.  This non-restrictive nature of office managerial services provides its recipients with wide access to job employment opportunities.

From the pervasive nature of office managerial services, it is clear that virtually all spheres of life need office technology management intervention.  All organizations need good information management systems, good record keeping for effective competitiveness and profit making.  Secretarial education has been evolving and developing with the advancement in office work and technology.  As a response many tertiary institutions in Nigeria have now changed the nomenclature from Secretarial Education/Studies to Office Technology and Management.

It portrays responsiveness to global changes in office and secretarial work especially with the application of information and communication technology to office secretarial practices.  This new perception has opened a wide vista in the development of new skills in the secretarial vocation and has helped in the creation of many new jobs and job opportunities for office technology and management graduates and other office managerial operatives (Wikipedia, 2013).

From the foregoing, it is obvious that office managerial work keeps expanding and has a lot of room for initiative and abilities to improve organizations well being.  Many Information Technology job/career opportunities have been created for competent office technology management graduates and other office managerial operatives.

INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY CAREER OPPORTUNITIES OFFICE TECHNOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT OFFERS TO ITS TRAINEES

Office Technology and Management as a course offers the following Information Technology career opportunities to its trainees:

Graphics Designer

Graphic design is all around us. It is in our morning paper, on our commute to work, and on the cover of our favorite books. The most common forms include: logos, websites, business cards, advertisements, book design, brochures, billboards, product packaging, posters, magazine layout, newspaper layout, greeting cards, etc.

Wimmer (2009) defined Graphic Design as an interdisciplinary, problem-solving activity which combines visual sensitivity with skill and knowledge in areas of communications, technology and business. Graphic design practitioners specialise in the structuring and organizing of visual information to aid communication and orientation. The graphic design process is a problem solving process, one that requires substantial creativity, innovation and technical expertise. Graphic design is a creative process, one most often involving a client and a designer, and traditionally completed in conjunction with producers of form (printers, sign makers, etc.). Common uses of graphic design include identity (logos and branding), publications (magazines, newspapers and books), advertisements and product packaging. For example, a product package might include a logo or other artwork, organized text and pure design elements such as shapes and color which unify the piece (Wikipedia, 2013).   Miller (2009) also defines a graphic design as “the art or profession of visual communication that combines images, words, and ideas to convey information to an audience.”  He further said a graphic designer is responsible for arranging and using elements on different types of media (such as a poster, a package or a website), most likely with the use of graphics software program such as Corel Draw, Adobe PageMaker, Adobe Illustrator, Photoshop or InDesign, etc.

A Graphic Designer is one who has the artistic sensibility, skill and experience and/or training professionally to create designs or images for reproduction by any means of visual communication, and who may be concerned with illustration; typography; calligraphy; surface design for packaging; or the design of patterns, books, advertising and publicity material, or any form of visual communication (Julius & Felipe, 2008).   A graphic designer is a professional within the graphic design and graphic arts industry who assembles together images, typography or motion graphics to create a piece of design. A graphic designer creates the graphics primarily for published, printed or electronic media, such as brochures (sometimes) and advertising.  They are also sometimes responsible for typesetting, illustration, user interfaces, web design, or take a teaching position.  A core responsibility of the designer’s job is to present information in a way that is both accessible and memorable.

A career as a graphic designer can take many different flavours because graphic design touches so many areas of visual output.  Graphic designers work with letters, colour, patterns, illustration, photography, information and physical materials to create everything from annual reports to corporate logos, from maps and diagrams to album and book covers, from product packaging to digital interfaces – and much more besides.  Graphic designers are versatile and can bring their understanding of visual elements and composition to work in many different areas.  Familiarity with design software, as well as an ability to work and produce visual ideas away from the computer will appeal to employers (Helfand, 2009).

OTM trainees with their knowledge of Desktop Publishing can work in a variety of environments.  While some may work within companies devoted specifically to the industry, such as design consultancies or branding agencies, others may work within publishing, marketing or other communications companies.  They may also work as commercial designers, working on their own terms, prices, ideas, etc

Web Designer/Developer

The term web design is normally used to describe the design process relating to the front-end (client side) design of a website including writing mark up, but this is a grey area as this is also covered by web development (Walter, 2001).  Web designers are expected to have an awareness of usability and if their role involves creating markup then they are also expected to be up to date with web accessibility guidelines (Jennifer, 2006).  Lisbeth (2007) stated that web designers are responsible for the visual aspect, which includes the layout, coloring and typography of a web page. Web Designers/Developers will need to have a working knowledge of using a variety of languages such as HTML, CSS, JavaScript, PHP and Flash to create a site. OTM offers Web Design as a course that teaches its trainees the fundamentals of HTML and the Web.  It provides its trainees with an understanding of the introduction to Web design and Internet programming hence preparing them to take career in the field of web design/web development.

 Database Administrator

Database administration is the function of managing and maintaining database management systems (DBMS) software such as Ms Access, Oracle, MySQL, IBM DB2, Microsoft SQL Server, etc. Corporations that use DBMS software often hire specialized IT (Information Technology) personnel called Database Administrators or DBAs.  A database administrator (short form DBA) is a person responsible for the installation, configuration, upgrade, administration, monitoring and maintenance of databases in an organization (Haigh, 2006).

Database Administrators use database software to store and manage information. They will often set up database systems and are responsible for making sure those systems operate efficiently (usually referred to as database performance tuning). They also make sure that the data they store is backed up regularly, stored effectively, and that the data is secure from unauthorized access. Ensuring the data is available, by maximizing database uptime, is also an important function of the database administrator.  Database Administrator’s job is very important, since in today’s world, almost all of the information a company uses is kept in databases (Mark and Orryn, 2001).  The courses Database Management Systems (DBMS) and MIS (Management Information Systems)  OTM offers at the HND level paves its trainees way to taking career in Database Administration.

Netpreneur/Internetpreneur

According to Spencer and Pruss, (2000), an entrepreneur is typically defined as a person willing to take risks involved in starting and managing a small business and the qualities that are needed to function effectively in a business, profit-making context.

Similarly, netpreneurship or internetpreneurship is the ability to start and manage a small business based exclusively on the Internet (Spencer and Pruss, 2000).  Website is one of the most crucial tools for online business communication.   It can be used to sell products and services on the web.  The office technology management operatives, sometimes with intellectual capital as the only investment in the business, can grow a successful online enterprise with very few resources. Office management graduate with his knowledge of webpage design can help firms to create online business presence and also help his clients to copy it to the web. A competent Office technology and management graduate  can engage in e-business by selling products and services such as e-books, ezines and newsletters, tickets, softwares, design and art,  advertising services, as well as run consultancy services online.

Data Processor                                                                                                 

Data are nothing but facts (organized or unorganized) which can be converted into other forms to make it useful, clear and practically used. This process of converting facts to information is processing.  A data processor is a person who processes data.  Data processing is any process that a computer program does to enter data and summarise, analyses or otherwise convert data into usable information. The process may be automated and run on a computer. It involves recording, analysing, sorting, summarising, calculating, disseminating and storing data. Data-processing systems typically manipulate raw data into information, and likewise information systems typically take raw data as input to produce information as output (Wikipedia, 2013). According to Wiki (2013), data processing is a sequence of operations on data to convert it into useful information.  Information is most important part for any business. Without information, no business can even sustain their position in the market. Data processing helps you to get information from various kinds of instruments like; cheques, forms, images and others. Data processing goes through a cycle of input, processing and output.

The course, ICT and Office Applications OTM offers to its trainees enable them to do data entry, processing, and analysis through the use of Computer applications such as Ms Word, Ms Excel, etc. Thus these courses unlock their door of grasping career opportunities in data processing where they can work in industries as data processors or become self-employed by establishing business centres that could provide the public with such services as typing of documents, typesetting, etc for some fee.

Information Technology Consultant

When students are well versed in complex Office managerial work and ICT they can establish a consultancy unit that can assist young firms to establish electronic office, records management procedures and even sell ICT and office facilities and equipment to such firms.  Huge income could be generated from such ventures to empower such consultants.

CONCLUSION

The acquisition of Office Technology and management education is certainly a reagent for youth empowerment.  The acquisition of office technology and management skills opens numerous job opportunities to its recipients because office managerial manpower and services are needed in all areas of the economy.  Thus, students who have office technological skills are not likely to waste much time on unemployment queue before securing gainful employment.  Students with competent office management technological could establish small-scale businesses of the types earlier discussed where other members of the family (adult and youths) could help to generate more income for their empowerment.

RECOMMENDATIONS

The following are recommended

• That the curriculum for Office Technology and Management programme should be redesigned and enlarged to accommodate courses that are in touch with the reality of the world of business such as Web programming with special attention to CSS, PHP, Javascript in addition to HTML Programming, MySQL in addition to the content of Database Management System and Management Information Systems, technical writing, modern office production and technology, office equipment maintenance, project management and electronic publishing.
• That training should emphasized more on skills and practical abilities rather than theory.
• That additional training should be embarked upon by the students so as to enable them compete with others in the labour market after graduation.  This additional training could be obtained from outside computer training centres/institutes, through attending seminars as well as enrolling for online learning courses.
• Training and re-training of lecturers should be done regularly to keep them abreast of the latest development in Information Technology for the benefit of their students.
• Internet services should also be made available in the computer laboratories to enable students acquire practical skills on how to use the internet.
• Students’ positive attitude towards innovations must be activated and interest developed in Information Technology.

REFERENCES

Asika, N.M. & Odugbesan, A. O. (2002), Understanding Nigerian Business Environment, Lagos, Concept Publication Ltd.

Boladele, Y. (2002). Secretarial Efficiency in an Automated Office: Journal of The School Vocational and Technical Education (THE VAS JOURNAL), 7 (1), 123-134.

Chukwumezie, F.U (2002). The Internet Competencies Required of Secretaries in a  Technological Environment, Business Education Journal 3 (6) October, pp. 24-36

Ekpenyong. L E (2008). Foundations of Technical & Vocational Education: Evolution and Practice. 

 Haigh, T (2006). “Origins of the Data Base Management System” (PDF). SIGMOD Record ACM Special Interest Group on Management of Data 35 (2).

Helfand, J. (2009) “What is graphic design?” AIGA. Retrieved 7^th April, 2013 from http://www.aiga.org/content.cfm/what-is-design.

Jennifer, N.  (2006). Web Design in a Nutshell. United States of America.

Julius, W. & Felipe, T. (2008). Latin-American Graphic Design. Taschen Publishers. ISBN 978-3-8228-4035-1

Lisbeth (2007). The Role of Aesthetics in Web Design. Nordicom Review (28): 63–76.

Miller, E. (2009).  What is Graphic Design? Retrieved on 7^th April, 2013 from _{http://graphicdesign.about.com/od/graphicdesignbasics/a/what_is.htm}

Nworgu, B.N. (2007).  The Indispensability of ICT in Educational Research. Information Communication Technology in the Service of Education Edited by D.N. Ezeh and Nkadi Onyegegbu, University of Nigeria, Nsukka, I.

Spencer, J. and Pruss, A. (2000). The Professional Secretary, London, Continuum Wellington House pp. 125-126

UNESCO (2010), Teaching Materials: Career Development retrieved on 8^th April, 2013 from http://www.unesco-nigeriatve.org

 Walter, O. (2001). Careers in Web Design. New York: The Rosen Publishing

Wiki (2013) Data Processing retrieved on 8^th April, 2013 from http://wiki.answers.com/Q/Categories_of_data_processing