CONDITIONALITY OF IMF LOAN

CONDITIONALITY OF IMF LOAN

Conditionality is the unique distinctive features of the fund’s assistance. This characteristics is justified by the revolving nature of its funding and to the purpose of fund accommodation in providing finance for adjustment.
The IMF attaches two different types of conditions to its loans – quantitative conditions and structural conditions.

Quantitative conditions, known as Quantitative Performance Criteria (QPC), are a set of macroeconomic targets that governments must meet, including, for example, the level of fiscal deficit a government is allowed. In this research, we do not examine QPCs as they do not directly prescribe policy changes. However, we look at the outcomes of those policies, although these will also be important and are likely to be highly political.

Structural conditions, which tie IMFs lending to the achievement of institutional and legislative policy reforms within countries, come in two different forms:

• Prior actions – binding conditions, which have to be fulfilled before the loan is granted.

• Structural benchmarks – not binding, but influential in the reviews of government performance carried out by the IMF at least every six months, which give clearance for the release of a subsequent loan tranche.

Increases in structural conditionality during the 1990s and criticisms from civil society groups and borrowing governments over the years about the amount and intrusiveness of conditionality led to a series of reviews of IMF conditionality, aiming to ‘streamline’ practices.

Conditionality has become a hot topic again, after a boom in IMF lending following the global financial crisis. IMF lending had dwindled to very low levels by 2007, but the latest international crisis – beginning in 2007-08 – gave the Fund the opportunity to expand to new countries and to lend to old recipients.

This was to be expected as IMF lending has historically been linked to periods of debt distress during or after acute international crises – for example the 1970s oil crisis, 1980s debt crisis, 1990s Eastern European crisis, and the 1997 East Asian crisis. During the sovereign debt crises after 2008, there was a sharp increase in demand for credit, and the IMF responded by doubling quotas and access limits, allowing bigger loans.

It is claimed that conditionalities retard social stability and hence inhibit the stated goals of the IMF, while Structural Adjustment Programs lead to an increase in poverty in recipient countries. The IMF sometimes advocates “ austerity programmes ”, cutting public spending and increasing taxes even when the economy is weak, to bring budgets closer to a balance, thus reducing budget deficits. Countries are often advised to lower their corporate tax rate.

USERS OF ACCOUNTING INFORMATION

USERS OF ACCOUNTING INFORMATION

The users of accounting information are many and diverse such user are as follows:

1. Owners: Owners of the business have an obvious interest in the information provided by the accounting system; they assume the primary risk of the business by investing their money. They are naturally interested in obtaining accounting information that tells them something about the operation of their business and how much it is earning.

 Owners use accounting information to measure performance, compare their company with competitor and make decision to increase or decrease their ownership(investments)

2. Creditors: A creditor is an individual or institution that provides parts of an organization resources by lending it money. Creditors earn income by providing resources to business, so their activities represent investment although creditors are not owners of the business to which they lend money, creditors are interested in analyzing the organizational financial statement to determine or ensure that their investment is safe, that interest due to them can be paid and that their money can be repaid as at when due.

3. MANAGERS: Accounting reports are clearly important to managers who must ensure that the organizations satisfy the long range goals of producing profits.

In addition to external financial statements managers need more detailed internal report broken down by operating division within the organization area of responsibilities.

4. GOVERNMENT: Numerous government agencies depending on accounting information of business. They need to determine that business are meeting their legal obligation in terms of paying taxes, contributing to social security, benefit for their employees and satisfy federal and state regulation such as those concerning the registration and trading of their stocks.

5. EMPLOYEES: The employees of large organization are virtually interested in the result of organizational operation. They use financial statement to determine if they are obtaining a fair share of the resources distributed by organization to bargain for wages and fringe benefit and to counter management claims during such bargaining prospective employment frequently instigate organization to accept a position by examining its financial statement in order to learn something about the organizations operation growth prospect and profitability.

6. FINANCIAL ANALYST: Many investment decision are made on the advice of financial analyst who are experts in analyzing accounting report, security analysts employed by stock brokerage firms frequently advice clients on buying and selling stocks of corporation. Many banks pension trustee, educational institution and other institutional investors employ their own financial analyst staffs who analyze financial statement and express their judgment on the performance of business.

7. INVESTORS: This is another set or group which make use of accounting information whether or not they employ security analyst for investment advice. investors depends on accounting information for making investment decision prior to committing their resources to a business in form of loan,investor need to make careful investigation to determine that particular business represent an investment appropriate for their needs. The most significant aspect of such investment is an investor do not seek a controlling interest when they buy stock, instead they are interested in earning a return on their investment. The return on stock investment has two components.

• Dividend revenue during investment period
• Increase in the market value of the share owned.

When considering an investment of this type, the investor has the problem of predicting the future income and growth of the business; investors are interested in enterprise growth increase. The income statement provides significance information for the investors such as revenue from products income and earning per share.

THE MEANING OF ACCOUNTING INFORMATION

THE MEANING OF ACCOUNTING INFORMATION

Accounting Information – Every organization has financial system of some kind. The basis of this system is the flow of money through the organization. The financial system is largely concerned with recording, documentary, internal and historical monetary inflation financial information that provide for total protections.

According to Walter B. Meigs (1997) Accounting is commonly referred to as the language of business since the basic function of a language is to serve a means of communication, the above statement applied in business situation means that accounting is used to communicate matters relating to various aspect of business operations.

As individual enterprise keeps their account separately the attempt to communicate is essentially from a business enterprise to various individual groups and institutions which are interested in the operation of that organization. Now although accounting is commonly identified with business, the business enterprise is not the only type of statement of financial position.

TYPES OF ACCOUNTING INFORMATION

Among the most important type of accounting information is the financial statement. According to Aderike Janet (2000) financial statements are used by main source of financial information parties outside the business enterprise.

FINANCIAL STATEMENT

These statement are the summary of the business transaction for a specific period such as a month or a year, financial statement shows the financial position of the business as at the time of the report.

The basic purpose of financial statement is to assist investors and creditor in evaluating the financial strength, profitability and future prospect of the business entity.

The financial statement is made up of statement of financial position.
Financial statement provides information to both managers and other parties external to the business including shareholders to the business including shareholder, bankers and other creditors, government agencies and general public.

The shareholder go through financial statement provided by the management to know whether is satisfactory or not if not they (shareholders) will demand for corrective action. Financial statement provides information to both managers and other parties external to the business including shareholders to the business including shareholder, bankers and other creditors, government agencies and general public.
The shareholder go through financial statement provided by the management to know whether is satisfactory or not if not they (shareholders) will demand for corrective action.

THE BALANCE SHEET

Accounting to Hanson Paul, H. (1993) is a snap short of the current financial position of a given date usually a year. It gives information about an organizational financial position in terms of what it owes and what is owns it records the organizations liabilities and assets states at the end of a trading period. It form the starting point for the next trading period.

Accounting information in the balance sheet is not just the preparation of records and reports but rather, it must aim at giving financial information that could be analyzed and interpreted.

OPERATING STATEMENT OF INFORMATION

The information link between the two successive period is the profit and loss account. The profit and loss account. It reflects the changes that have taken place in the business (operation) within particular financial year.

The statement of change in financial position according to Serge Matilich (1998) describes change in an organization “Strength resulting from operation and other sources for the period indicated. It is from the operation of the year that the profit and loss are estimated.

A considerable amount of information is required to conduct day to day operation. Employees must be paid their salaries and the pay roll records be maintained for each employee showing amount earned and paid as well as the various deductive.

The sales force needs to know what goods are available for some and each ones cost or selling price or both when goods are sold, a each one’s cost or selling price or both when goods are sold, a record must be made of that fact. The person in the stock room need to know what raw material and accessories are on hand, and it stock of certain goods becomes depleted this fact needs to be known and of a customers does not pay a bill on time this fact needs to be known so that appropriate action can be taken.

The organization or company needs to know the amount it owes to offers and when this amount should be paid and how much money it has in the bank. This information is very useful to the management. It enable the management of an organization to know the progress or failure of their operations, that is whether after paying the amount it owes, it still have money to continue operation or not.

FUND FLOW STATEMENT

It is a well known fact that every business requires capital to trade. The capital issued to acquired a number of assets such as premises, equipment and most important of all a sufficient stock of goods, to enable it to offer attractive choice to its customers. The working capital is use normally to indicate the amount of supplies fund a business has at bank or hand to enable it meets immediate financial commitments.

The fund flow statement show how much the working capital has increase or decreased during a given period by preparing statement setting out the sources from which fresh working capital entered the business.

MANAGERIAL DATA REPORT

In addition to financial statement, management needs much detailed accounting data to assist in planning and controlling the daily operation of the business. The managing directors, the supervisors and manager of an organization do not have the time to examine the detail of the operational information.

These types of information are used in three management functions:
i. Planning
ii. Coordinating
iii. Control.

REFERENCES

Arya A. and J Glover.(2003). Abandonment Options and Information System Design, Reviewed of Accounting Studies. 8 (1): 29 – 45.

 

Diwivedi, D. N. (2008): Management Economics Seventh Edition. UBs publishers Distributors PU Ltd. A Asari Road New Delhi 110002.

Problem of Guidance and Counselling Programme in Nigerian Schools

Problem of Guidance and Counselling Programme in Nigerian Schools

The following are problem that Hinder the Effectiveness of Guidance and Counselling Programme in Nigerian Schools.

In spite of the expressed need of guidance and counseling and the realization of the objective of the goals of the 6-3-3-4 system of Education in Nigeria, it is apparent that not much has been achieve in our educational institutions through the programme.

To this effect Ayo Adewole in a paper presentation edited by Bulus etal (1991) they observed that “one can say that we are far from practicing guidance and counseling as it should be done”.

This remark implies that guidance and counseling programme has not really grown or developed so as to make remarkable impression in our school system.

Investigation revealed that things are not rosy for the counseling profession in our educational system. Counsellors are encountering problem in the execution of their jobs, some of those problem are identified as

1. Insufficient number of professionally trained counsellor in our schools.

2. Scarcity of necessary physical facilities, offices accommodation and future test and non-test instrument, bulleting beard file/folder. Self tape recorder of the statement.

3. Lack of funding for the programme

4. Lack of psychological tests

5. Opposition from other school functionaries like principal and teachers.

6. Ignorant of the importance of the programme by student and significant others

7. Lack of clear-cut time allocation for guidance and counseling on the time table at least for group counseling.

8. Lack of clear and defend official roles of the school counsellor in the Nigeria schools.
9. Non-participation of counseling in curriculum planning and drawing of school time-table.

The Need for Guidance and Counseling in Nigeria

The Need for Guidance and Counselling in Nigeria

Guidance and counselling services are needed now more than before; because of the complexity of the society and the high rate of unemployment which is turn lead to high rate of offence and other vices in the society.

To agree with this statement, Mallam (2000) says that increased demand for educational vocational and personal social life of the society, more especially the young necessitate the need for guidance. Furthermore, Olayinka (1996) observed that as a matter of fact, much confusion emanates when we see the street being crowded by educated but unemployed/unemployable people of different kinds and categories, one might be forced to believe that we are producing many un-educated people.

However; as if responding to the concluding part of the statement above, Bakare (1997) says “that it is not true but we are exciting them wrong”. The reason is either they were not guide at all in their career choices or that they were not properly guided especially in their secondary school which is the bed rock of the career choice. In the same vain, Ajube (1976) also cited in Mallam (2000) agrees that there is need for guidance and counseling to help the beneficiaries make wise choice of career.

Lannap (1992) says that any Educational level that operate without guidance and counseling is likely to suffer a great set-back in term of the society, Economic, moral psychological and Educational development.

Moreover, it is quite obvious that we are no longer in the era when after leaving school as a school leaver or a graduate one was faced with lots of job opportunities to make a choice from the trend of event has changed that without proper educational and vocational preparations good means of survival becomes a dream or rather a game of luck. This makes decision making concerning appropriate occupation and career the most cruel problem area at the secondary school level.

Thus Kuchhar (1999) says “that it is a fact that out of educational system has grow up in a highly, pigged fashion call for careful guide over ones future course of study or choice”.

In the same line of though, Unachukwu and Igborgbor (1999) observe that there are a lot of problem facing the child and these include the choice of subject, how to pass or fail Examination, choice of schools, to attend, how to combine subject so as to pursue any area of study, disillusion more with chosen subject, problem of coping with a course of study, lack of interest and lack of motivation.

While the above statement consider mainly the ugly situation student face in subject combination and career choice, Kocher (1999) look at general predicament the individual student find themselves, he laments not only that quite a big number of students at the threshold of a college or university are in for compelling and deficient-like situations, they are shy, fearful, gullible, not skilled in managing their own affairs, feelings of failures, inadequacy or lack of meaning or purpose in- life. They lack self-knowledge which make them unable to form realistic life-goal and plans. They lack both focus and meaningful direction.

As if trying to draw a concluding analysis of these various opinions and observation Abiri (1977) observed that “if our society is not to be plaque by a brood of disgruntled, frustration and unrestricted individuals, secondary school student should be exposed to available opportunities and social expectation in the country through care guidance and counseling.

Hence, it will be an understatement to say that one needs guidance and counseling before he can exist and thrived properly in the society. Thus the urgent and crucial need for guidance and counseling service at all the school levels.

Function of the School Counsellor

Function of the School Counsellor

The school counsellor being the central nerve of the guidance programme performs certain responsibilities towards the achievement of the objectives of our educational system

Mallam (2000:34) Lannap (1992) Kocbhar (1999) and Angbogu (1988) have it that the school counsellor should carry out the following functions:

I. Arrange orientation programme for the
a. Teacher to enlist their cooperation
b. Fresher to make them conversant with the school system

II. Arrange for talk by expert from different field and exercise to place of work e.g. industries to enable student get ample information about the variety of work that exist in the locality.

III. Arrange for individual discussion with the student and their parent for education and occupational information.

IV. Set up an educational and occupational information centre and prepare an up- to date list of the resources.

V. Displays or disseminate the information collected to student properly.

VI. Educate student on proper study habit and assist them in the development.

VII. Keep cumulative record on student.

VIII. Maintain an active relationship with schools ministry of education, information, labour and productivity and the outside world at large to get abreast with the contemporary issues so as to inform the student a right.

IX. Refer serious cases he she cannot handle to the appropriate personnel’s e.g. Doctor, Psychologist, psychiatrists.

X. Administer psychological test to students.

XI. Help in the placement of student into classes.

XII. Take up research project relating to the field of education vocation and personnel social guidance and convey agencies.

XIV. Help student develop moral and ethics value to achieve economic efficiency and appreciate dignity of labour.

XV. Help student understand themselves in term of ability aptitude, interest, weakness, strength and personal characteristics so that they can make rational, realist and appreciate educational and vocational choice.

As a matter of fact the list of the function of the counsellor in the school is exhaustible. It will be not be unjust therefore to say that they counsellor occupier very strategic position in the society at large for the Bible, in proverb 22: 6 says “train up a child in the way his should go and when he is old, he will not depart from it”. Therefore, if counsellor executes these functions properly the moral lives of our student will be positively affected and the large society will be a better place for many to live in, as student of today become men and women of the large society tomorrow.

Qualities of a Counsellor

Qualities of a Counsellor

A Counsellor being one who offer helping services to people is expected to poses certain typical characteristics to enhance his/her effectiveness and success in the helping profession. These characteristics which are classified into two major groups personnel and professional qualities are made available by Anagbogu (1992:75) Unachukwu and Igborgbor (1991) Kochhar (1999) and Okoye etal (1990).

Personal Characteristics

There are inherent characteristics in the counselor which through training are modified or developed. These are:

a. Intelligent: The counselor must be intelligent to be able to understand the client feelings, behaviours and motives so as to manipulate situation especially where the client find it difficult to alter certain impression.

b. Dependability: A counselor must be trust worthy, dependable and consistent if he/she is to earn the trust of the student.

c. Warm and caring: The counsellor must show positive attitude and regard to the client by being warm, caring comforting and respecting the worth of the clients. He/She should possess un-conditional positive regards for the client not being bias or judgmental, irrespective of their past negative behaviours.

d. Self- confidence: The counselor must give an unconditional acceptance to the client considering individual difference and also accepting the right of the client in personal matters.

e. Acceptance of client: A counselor must give an un-conditional acceptance to the client considering individual difference and also accepting the right of the client in personal matters.

f. Sensitivity: The counsellor should be able to sense that over and over behaviour of the client, feeling, needs, thought and action. This the counsellor does through his/her verbal and non-verbal activities, perceiving and responding to the feeling, needs and conflict of the client without becoming threatening, disrupting or alarming the client.

g. Empathetic: The counsellor should be empathetic in nature being able to place him or her self in the position of the client to understand the feelings, belief, attitude, needs, though and actions he or she should also be able to communicate this understanding to the client so that they (clients) sense it.

h. Geniuses: A counsellor must be his or her real self at any point in time, being natural in behaviours, honest and should not fake situations.

i. Sense of honour: A counselor is more directed to people rather than things, therefore he or she should live a good sense of honour, which help ion making client to relax and be open to him or her.

j. Commitment: The counsellor must demonstrate a deep sense of commitment to the job which reflect his or her personal moral standard and the code of conduct and norms of the counseling profession.

k. Self control: A counsellor must be able to control his or her biases and the defenses so that he or she does not interferes with the progress of any person whom he or she is working. He or she should have good control of both his or her intellectual abilities and emotion.

l. Patience: The counsellor should be highly patient with the client during counseling encounters. He or she should exercise patience and listen attentively to what ever the client have to say not minding how they are said. Acknowledging the fact by nodding facial expressions. Postural, positions, eye contact and putting a word or two from time to time.

m. Communication ability: The ability to communicate well with client makes it possible for them to establish positive objectives toward “self”. A counsellor should be able to communicate clearly verbal or non-verbal, he / she should be able to communicate his or her feeling well without expression being audible enough without a necessary shouting and the messages not being ambiguous.

n. Social active and friendly: The counsellor should be friendly and interact freely with different categories of people-young and old, male and females rich and poor e.t.c. Through this he or she should be able to know the need of the people.

o. Flexibility: A counsellor should not hold a view and stick dogmatically to it he or she should be imaginative and have open mind, craving fore improvement in his or her relationship with others. He or she should be very abreast with change that occur around him or her and adapt to them

 Professional Qualities

These are the qualities of counsellor acquire through counsellor education. These are as follows:

a. Professional education: The counsellor should not be only trained but should be professionally educated in the course for him or her to function effectively, he or she should be knowledgeable in a wide range of areas such as psychology, counseling theories, behavours modification techniques, occupational information, understanding clinical attitude e.t.c. A counsellor should be able to have mind to study and understands the client with the aim of providing necessary help and being congruent in his or her information, word and action.

b. Confidentiality: Confidentiality is one of the ethics of counseling and should not be infringed by the counsellor who is expected to act as confident to his or her client. Therefore, the golden rule of “keeping our secret, secret” should be highly maintained by the counsellor.

Although it is an obvious fact that it is difficult for an individual counsellor to possess all these qualities, it is a deal for the counsellor to strive to possess as many of them as possible through his training and personal, determination if he or she gain the confidence of his client and succeed in the helping profession.

Type of Guidance Services

Type of Guidance Services

The Guidance Services promote the holistic development of pupils and students by providing on-going prevention and intervention services and offering necessary helps towards achieving goals and objective in school.

In an attempt to achieve the above stated goals, guidance offers the following services;

Orientation Service

This is the service given to the students to make them emotionally secured and better adjusted in a new environment “especially during the critical transition period from one class to another and from one school to the other”, Oladele (1996). It also enable student to get a academic information easily and get used to their new social surrounding.

Information Service

Anagbogu (1988), Uba (1990) and Lanna (1992) all agree that information services are aimed at providing student with better knowledge of education, vocational and personal social opportunities so that they may make better information and realistic choice and design about educational and vocational plan. According to Anagbogu (1987) “A good information service help people to meet the challenge of today and tomorrow:”

Counselling Service

Uba (1990) describe counselling as the lord of the entire guidance world. The objective of counselling according to Arbuckle (1970) is to help an individual to clear away his entanglement and hamper tentacles so that he can be what he really is and contributes more both to himself and followers. In the same vain, Perz, (1965) says that counseling help the counselee to deal more effectively with himself and in relation of his environment.

Placement Service

This refers to putting people into various jobs, school, class or courses where they are most suitable considering their ability, aptitude and interest.

Appraisal Service

This is the provision of satisfying educational vocational and social programme for student through the adequate data collected on them through intelligent attitude and achievement test and also through the use of non-test means such as stating scale, interview, observation autobiographic e.t.c.

Referral Service

This is the act of referring or transferring problem which the counselor could not effectively handle to expert who can proffer service or solution to them. This could be within or outside the school system such could be referring student to medical Doctor, Dentist, Optician, Psychologies, Physiotherapist, Principal e.t.c.

Follow Up Service

This is the act of probing into the progress of client or student after guidance- and counselling interview to approach the effectiveness or others.

Objectives and Goal of Guidance and Counselling

Concept of Guidance and Counselling

Guidance and counseling focuses on the need of the individual and how to better his life in future.

It is deducted that guidance is preventive in nature, guiding against possible future problems while counseling is curative in nature, proffering solution to an already existing problems.

In spite of the fact that counselling is one of the services render by guidance programme, the two concepts are not separated. Thus Okeye etal (1990) says that “the most professional way of looking at the term is to see them as a married couple, it take two of them to produce”.

This is to say that both guidance and counselling are concerned with the totality of the client as a regards his or her need and problems, personal, social educational, vocational e.t.c.

As a result of this analysis the concept of guidance and counselling in this study are being consider and separable but discussed as one term. Its major focus is to make students happy, effective and functional individual.

Objectives and Goal of Guidance and Counselling

Guidance and counseling focuses on the need of the individual and how to better his life in future. According to Angbogu (1978), guidance and counselling is designed to:

i. Assist the individual through the use of appropriate tools and technique to develop the ability necessary for self direction, personal understanding, self-confidence and mental maturity necessary for a healthy growth and proper adjustment.

ii. Assist the individual to have a clearer understanding of himself, his personal trait, social values, habits, attitudes and believe which maker one disciplined and adjusted being.

iii. Assist the individual to identify his motivation, ambition, resources and limitations.

iv. Assist the individual to acquire a better knowledge of available education facilities and learn how to study effectively to achieve academic aspiration.

v. Assist the individual to develop positive self concept and the awareness of self with the changing complex society such as Nigeria.

All these are geared toward the enhancement of positive attitude and well- adjusted life of the individual in the society.

THE NEED FOR EVALUATION OF GUIDANCE AND COUNSELLING PROGRAM

THE NEED FOR EVALUATION

In all area of human endeavours, evaluation of the past and present action is done so as to improve in future performance. Citizen of a nation utilize evaluation process in judging and making decision concerning many areas of life, salaries promotion, job termination, retirement among other event at home people evaluate their life styles and make necessary changes and decision concerning the improvement of the families.

In the institution of learning, students teachers, and institution programme are periodically evaluated so as to maintain or improve on educational system.

The scenarios above show that evolution is a driver to activity which people do every day. Thus Unachukwu and lgborgbor (1991) defined evaluation as a process for appreciating the value of effectiveness of a programme or activity”, to this effect, they identify the following as the need for evaluating of guidance and counselling.

I. To discover any loopholes and limitation of guidance and counseling programme and effort made towards remedying it.

II. To ascertain how true or otherwise certain acclamation of the importance of guidance and counselling programme is through the establishment of evidence.

From the foregoing; there are two prominent characteristics of evaluation.
i. It involves judgment of work and value and
ii. It is related to the decision making process.

Therefore, there is the need to periodically evaluate the educational programmes, which guidance and counselling is one, if the aim and objectives of education are to be achieved especially in the 6-3-3-4 system to the effect, Ezeugu (1911) remarks unless programme are properly evaluated, education will have no basic for decision making on opinion, Unachukwu and Igbobor (1991) in a specific from says, “Evaluation of guidance programme is an important part of any on-going guidance activity”. It is only through a systematic and continuous programme of evaluation that the guidance services in any guidance and counselling setting can improve and grow.

Summarily, evaluation can be said to be carried out to asses extent to which set objective have been achieved in order to effect necessary change for improvement.

PROPERTY DEVELOPMENT PROCESS

PROPERTY DEVELOPMENT PROCESS

The property  development process (real estate development process) is a complex, time-consuming, capital intensive, multi-disciplinary, externality-generating, public-private endeavor. Unfortunately, the conceptual models used to describe this process are usually very simple.

Just as planning theoretically defined it as a rational decision making process in this vein, the development process can be said to possess an inherent topic Rathliff (1978) in his own opinion that development process is similar to any other industry or manufacturing process where a particular commodity is provide in response to a given demand, property or real property development include industry supplies the building fabric for given environment within which various social and economic activities, society are performed and in so doing observe and measure the place at which addition or alternative should be made to the total stock.

The following are the stages involved in property  development process:
1. Site Identification: the first stage is the site identification and the aim must march the objectives of a particular real property development demand and supply of available land. The site for development could be already developed as well as bare site. There are legal constraints associated with this stage. There are legal constraints, competition constraints, planning permission constraints.

2. Choice of professional team: after site identification stage, the next stage will be the selection of professional team who are involved in the process construction during development, such professional like quantity surveyors, architects, structural engineering, and the building etc.

3. Preliminary Appraisal: the third stage in this discovered out of a number alternative site present for selection, it is necessary to analyze the inability of investment contained therein. This is based on the prevailing plan rate in such area. Having examined current rate of vacancy with the sectors concerned and the number and scheme under construction prevailing planning policy. Etc.

4. An outline programmed: if the preliminary proven positive, next stage is the stage of outline of programmed, which can be drawn up. This will consider the possible timing for the project, the resources in terms of finance and the appropriate management structure for the operation.

5. Detailed Investment: the fifth stage in the development process is that detailed investigation of various parameters of development whether it’s legal, social, economic and physical development. The physical parameters will look at the topography of the area whether it is hilling, rocky, swampy area to be leveled up. Legal parameter involves merging of interest by negotiation. If there is need while social cost and benefit that such development could cause the inhabitants.

6. Financial Appraisal: the next stage is financial appraisal. The method would be cash flow analysis which will show the viability of the project.

Concept of Development

Concept of Development

Development is the process of adding improvements to a parcel of land, such as grading, subdivisions, drainage, access, roads, and utilities.

Types of development

I. On-site UPGRADING: Slum upgrading is a way of improving the physical environment and basic services in existing communities, while preserving their location, character and social structures. Besides improving the physical conditions and quality of life in these poor communities, the physical improvements made under an upgrading process can act as a springboard for other kinds of development among community members such as income generation, welfare and community enterprises.

II. On-site RE-BLOCKING: is a more systematic way of improving the infrastructure and physical conditions in existing communities by making some adjustments to the layout of houses and roads to install sewers, drains, walkaways, and roads, but doing so in ways which ensure the continuity of the community.

III. On-site RECONSTRUCTION: in this upgrading strategy, existing communities are totally demolished and rebuilt on the same land; either under a long-term lease or after the people has negotiated to purchase the land.

IV. LAND SHARING: land-sharing is a housing and settlement improvement strategy which allows both the land-owner and the community people living on that land to benefit.

Claims

Claims

Claims: These are legal demand or assertion by a claimant for compensation, payment, or reimbursement for a loss under a contract, or an injury due to due to negligence.

Numerous authors have debated on the connection between claims and disputes, besides it can be deduced from typical type of contract that it is only when claims are initiated and turned down that a dispute occur and comes into existence (Reid & Ellis, 2007). According to Sempele, Hartman, & Jergeas (1994), in a contract, a claim can be an appeal for recompense by any party for sustained damages. The implication is that a claim correlate to the issue of regarding compensation, solution or inability in fulfilling the requirement of the contract.

Sheridan & Helps (2004), have stressed the significance of the time between submitting of a claim and the necessity to ascertain that an important thing ought to be concluded by putting to an end all processes involved in discussion. This shows that the nature and relationship of claim and dispute is imperative regarding time. Various authors have talked about complexity related to determining the time in which conversation turns into a debate of which will turn out to initiating a claim and if not heeded will eventually turn into a dispute (McDonald, 1984).

THEME IN THE NOVEL “DESTINY OF LIFE”

THEME IN THE NOVEL “DESTINY OF LIFE”

The following are the themes in the Novel “Destiny of Life”.
1. Theme of sorrow
2. Theme corruption
3. Theme of love and hatred
4. Theme of regrets

THEME OF SORROW

The theme of sorrow was demonstrated in the Novel “Destinies of life” Characters such as Maryam, Aisha, Umar experienced sorrowful moments. Maryam was the mother of Aisha who out of frustration of living in a loveless marriage left Awwal. In Maryam’s case it is a sorrowful moment leaving Aisha behind in the hands of another step mother who maltreated her.

Aisha was in her third year of Queen’s College when she met Mukhtar. In Aisha’s second year at the university, a date or the wedding ceremony was agreed upon. Two days to the wedding, Mukhtar finally called to explain the reasons for his absence and promised to arrive earlier to meet with the wedding arrangements. Tragedy struck as the news of Mukhtar’s death went viral. He was involved in a motor accident along Zaria/Jos road that eventually claimed his life. As a result of this, Aisha was soaked up in the ocean of sorrow.

Aisha had travelled to Jos to visit her father “Baha, who had been ill, and had just been discharge from the hospital. After several attempts by Aisha to call Umar proved abortive. Baba persuaded Aisha to return to Abuja that day because she believed something has amiss. When Aisha finally arrived in Abuja, the heavens were let loose on her. The secret affairs between her husband Umar and Nafisah became very glaring. Aisha wallowed in pains as tears of sorrow and disappointment rolled down her cheek.

Aisha again swam in the ocean of sorrow for losing her son to a premature death Aisha stared blankly at her father before he was buried after the Islamic shrouding of the dead. Against Aisha’s wish, tears streamed down her face. Her heart was in disarray.

Pains of loss sapped Umar’s soul when he entered the meeting a bit late as the chairman of the meeting apologized just to notice the new minister giving him a sinister smile and told him that he was not supposed to be part of the meeting of the ministry. It dawned on him that the game is up and sorrow besieged his heart.

THEME CORRUPTION

The theme of corruption characters are Nafisah’s mother and Umar. When Nafisah’s mother got hint of Nafisah’s relationship with Umar she became excited. They had caught a big fish in their net she said. What a mother she is! It takes only a corrupted mind mother to give her support to such an immoral relationship of her daughter.
Umar’s share of the deal was to be 36 million naira; this accepting of the deal by Umar is another high rank corruption by a public office holder that he was.

THEME OF LOVE AND HATRED

“Destinies of life” is a novel that has captured life in its completeness. Love and hatred was portray in the life of the protagonist Aisha and several others in the story. The love life of Aisha did not begin with her. It began with her mother Mariam, whose quest for true love, sought for separation from her first husband Awwal as an “unwilling partner”. This was so because they both decided to accept “family and cultural pressures” and got married without loving each other.

According to the writer Mariam and Awwal “were like two birds that have been put together in a cage” and one of them had to be brave and break the door or else they might end up in a psychiatric hospital. So after six years of “loveless” marriage, they had to break up leaving Aisha their first daughter as the victim to suffer the consequences of their action. Actually Mariam found love in the arms of another man.

Aisha grew up into a beautiful and intelligent young lady and found love for the first time after she lost a mother’s love for years. (p.15).

Mukhtar was Aisha’s “first love” and the only person she had ever called a friend. This was something her step mother could have paid any amount to find for her daughters Amina an Assistant Director of economic planning to Deputy Director and then to director, a successful husband and the loving father of four kids (children) ruined his life with the desire of getting rich quickly. Alone in his office he reflected in how rich he would become if he push through with the deals or if the deal turns out to be successful.

When he (Umar) sat down and thought of how he frowned at the idea rind the risk involved when the Director of finance and supply had brought up the issue a month ago but having considered the benefits he would enjoy if successful he decided to give in to the director’s request.

Umar’s inability to control his quest or urge for more riches (wealth) led him into problem when he agreed to sign the deal with the Director of finance and supply. This singular act makes Umar a corrupt person as well as a corrupt citizen of his country, instead of being a successful husband to Aisha and the loving father to his four children.

THEME OF REGRETS

On the theme of regret1 the author portrays life as a mysterious phenomenon when man or human beings cannot solely determine what happens to him. In the novel, Aisha though the only child and the loving daughter of her father (Baba) whose ambition had always been to pass her examinations and make her father proud was determined to be a good wife to Umar was faced with the worst fears of her life when her threat to leave was thwarted by Baba.

She sacrificed her life, career and gave up everything for Umar but he rejected all and threw her love, care and understanding to the winds, and took everything for granted.

Umar was grief-stricken when he was at loss over what to do he broke down and wept for the loss he was beginning to feel for the first time. Then that day he regretted his separation from Aisha and left without saying a goodbye to Baba.

Umar also regretted marrying Nafisah by saying “I wish I had known what a useless, spoilt and wicked woman I had married. Nafisah also regretted by realizing that she had made a terrible mistake by marrying Umar for the first time, she saw clearly that she was punished herself by accepting such as low statua common housewife.

Reference

Destiny of life by Asabe Kabir Usman

AGGREGATES

AGGREGATES

Fine and coarse aggregate make up the mixture of concrete, Sand, crushed stone, natural gravel are used for this purpose. Recycled aggregates from construction are used as patrol replacement of natural aggregates increasingly, while a number of manufactured aggregates (such as cooled, slag, bottom ash are also permitted).

 

Fine aggregate (sand)

Sand is one of the important constituent of concrete, is according to Sengupta (2008), a natural product from riverbeds, the mining of which is expensive Sharp river quartzite sand that is free of clay, loam, dirt and any organic or chemical matter is used. It is sieved with the 3.35mm zone of British standard (BS) test sieves. The sand has a specific gravity of 2.66 and an average moisture content of 0.90%. Increase compressive strength, but since the cement content of sand Crete is small, so is the amount of water that is added to the sand/cement mix to cure it. Adding more solid materials makes the mix much less fluid, making it difficult to cast into blocks. Fine aggregate should have the following qualities:

• Good sand should have coarse and angular grains of pure silica
• The grains of sand should be hard, strong and durable
• It should be free from silt, clay or any such salts that may attack the reinforcement
• It should be free from any organic matter
• It should be well graded (i.e. should contain in suitable proportions particles of various     sizes).
• It should be free from hygroscopic matter

PORTLAND CEMENT

PORTLAND CEMENT

Portland cement is the type of cement commonly and generally used around the World because of mortar, stucco, concrete and most non-specially grout as a basic ingredient. It is a fine powder produced by grinding Portland cement clinker (more than 90%) a limited amount of calcium sulfate which control the set time and up to 5% minor constituents. The two cements which are not group of Portland cement which are used in construction are;

• Super sulphate cement
• High alumina cement

For the purpose of this project the discussion is limited to Portland cement, which is the most widespread in use. The most commonly used Portland.

 

Types of ordinary Portland cement

• Rapid Hardening Portland cement
• Extra Rapid Hardening Portland cement
• Low Heat Portland cements
• White Portland cement
• Portland Pozzolana cement
• Portland Blast Furnace cement
• Sulphate Resistant Portland cement

Production and uses of Portland cement

Portland cement is manufactured from a mixture of limestone (calcium carbonate) and clay (silica) alumina and iron dioxide burnt in a rotary kiln at temperature of approximately 1300°C -1400°C, when the material sinters it practically fuses into a solid mass known as clinker. The clinker is cooled and ground to a fine powder in a mill, a little gypsum being added at this to control the setting time of the cement.

Portland cement is used for mortars, concrete and stabilization of loose materials in highway construction. Cement if not stored properly shows and it should be kept on raised platforms to avoid contact with the floor so as to avoid the cement from being moist and damp.

Setting time of cement

Immediately water is poured in the Portland cement hydration begin to occur, when Portland cement is mixed with sufficient water to make a soft paste, it gradually becomes less plastic and finally becomes stiff and hard. When the paste has lost its plasticity and becomes sufficiently rigid so that it can withstand on arbitrary defined pressure, it is said to have set. This period is divided into two parts; the initial and the final set. After the cement paste has attained a final set, it further increases in rigidity and strength. This last process is called Hardening.

Tests for fineness of cement

The BS -450 specifications has two tests for fineness. In addition to the sieving test on BS 170 mesh which determine the percentage of coarse material. The second test records the surface areas of the articles of cement. This is used when a measurement of the finer particle is required.

 Soundness of cement

This means the ability of cement to maintain a constant volume. It is essential that the cement paste does not undergo an appreciable change in volume once it has set. Unsound cement will expand slowly over a long period. Its effects may not become apparent immediately, but it is capable of causing severe cracking of concrete and eventually failure. Unsoundness is caused by the presence of excess gypsum or to high proportion of free lime or magnesia. With the hydration of lime encased within cement, this protective film prevents the immediate hydration of the free lime. However, when the moisture finally reaches the lime after the cement has set and since lime expands manifold and with considerable force when hydrated, units delayed hydration may rapidly disrupt the mass.

The Le-Chateliers test which detects unsoundness due to free lime is usually employed according to BS 12:1989 procedure.

Strength of cement

This would be affected if it is disturbed during the period between initial and final strength of cement in position as soon as possible to avoid loss of strength. Ordinary Portland cement hardens slowly, but rapid hardening Portland cement hardens quickly and in 3 days the strength is usually as high as ordinary Portland cement at 7 days.

Compressive strength of cement

The compressive strength of concrete is taken as the maximum compressive load it can carry per unit area. Concrete strengths of up to 8ON/mn² can be achieved by selective use of the type of cement, mix proportions, method of compaction and curing conditions.

Concrete structures, except for road pavements, are normally designed on the basis that concrete is capable of resisting only compression, the tension being carried by steel reinforcement. The standard method described in BS 1881: Part 116 requires that the test specimen should be cured in water at 20⁰ C and crushed by loading it at a constant rate of stress, which increases between 12 and 24N/mm2 per min, immediately after it has been removed from the curing tank.

References

ASTMC 192-92 (1992) Test for the Time Setting for Hydraulic Cement in Cement in American Society for Testing and Materials, 1916 Race Street, Philadelphia, Pp 19103, U.S.A.

 

Beeby, A. W. (1994). Concrete in the oceans, cracking and corrosion. Technical Report. No. 1. Cement and Concrete Association, 7(2), 1-75.

Orchard, D.F. (1973). Concrete Technology Vol. I and ii. Applied Science Publishers ltd, London. U.K.

Wikipedia (2009). Pozzolans http//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/pozzolane. Retrieved 13^th March 2009.

 

Wikipedia(2009). Concrete.http://wiipedia.org/wiki/concrete. Retrieved 2^nd January 2010.

POWDERED BURNT BRICKS AS A POZZOLANA

POWDERED BURNT BRICKS AS A POZZOLANA

Clay from the physical and chemical disintegration of igneous rock, weathering which is the shale and limestone etc. Depending on the composition nature of the parent rock, clay varies (Neville and Brooks 2002). Clay result from grains of different sizes, which include sand (5.0mm to 0.14mm), dust (0.14mm to 0.005mm) and clay less than 0.005mm (BS 812: part: 1991).

According to lea (1970) the properties of PBB as a replacement for neutral volcanic ash pozzolans. The PBB value as an addition of mortar lime to obtain hydraulic properties has been known for long. (Smeaton, 2002) carried out the experiments on the use of PBB as a pozzolans in connection with the building of bridge where mortar mix with about 1/3rd of PBB. Pozzolanic material in production of mortar and concrete for constructing water retaining structure, (Bagge, 1994).

Critically observed and link the development of properties of pozzolanic material (PBB) on burning with temperature at which water loss occurs (Fremy, 1999). Then (Potter, 1990) described PBB and OPC which consist pozzolaniic cement, he stated that over 500 tones were used in sea water construction and also fresh water. In rebuilding of sinner dam, as observed by (Potter, 1990) the masonry was set in cement composed or formed of 70 OPC and 30 percent PBB. Water tight mortar 1:4 (OPC: sand) mix was found to yield.

The properties of powdered burnt brick as a pozzolana

The result of physical properties test of this pozzolanic material is observed and also sand were used for the research are shown below

From above result, PBB has specific gravity of 2.54, specific gravity of the value gotten on PBB is compiled with BS 12:1991 which described or shown its range to be minimum of 2.20 and about 2.80 maximum, approved for pulverized fuel ash (Neville, 1992) and also similar to the values obtained by Oyetola and Abdullahi (2005).

The different detected in specific gravity of these material (PBB) may be as a result of difference in fine particles of the materials. Consequently, it may result to difference in weight. Finally, SDA is weightless followed by RHA. This is in line with the result reported by Sa’ad (2005) on different PBB samples.

The specific gravity of sand was observed to be 2.65. The value gotten reduced within the limit for natural aggregates that ranges from 2.6 – 2.7(Neville, 1981).670kg/m³ and 660kg/m³ were known to be the compacted bulk density of PBB.

By Taylor PBB value are less than that of OPC which is 1440kg/m³ this shows that they are weightless materials. 1600kg/m³ was observed to be the compacted bulk density of sand.

This value is almost equal to the range given for bulk density before excavation of sandy soil that ranges from 1650kg/m³ to 1850kg/m³ as presented by Jackson and Dahir (1998).

Workability test of PBB

The result of this test on every specimen sample describes that the slump for 100% OPC and of 10% replacement of PBB pozzolana was within the range of 6-10mm which shows low workability (ASTM, 1881: part 2: 1970). The result of the compacting factor test on all the paste is close to the range of 0.85-0.92 approved by (Ochard, 1973) for road and slab concrete. It was seen from the tests result that mixes 10% replacement of PBB have lower slump than that 100% OPC.

References

Alfred, B. S. (1911). Modern Brick making. London: Scott, Greenwood and son Press.

 

American Standard for Testing Method C 618-78: Specification for Strength Requirement of Pozzolanic Materials.

 

ASTMC 192-92 (1992) Test for the Time Setting for Hydraulic Cement in Cement in American Society for Testing and Materials, 1916 Race Street, Philadelphia, Pp 19103, U.S.A.

 

ASTM C 618-78(1978). Specification for Pozzolana, ASTM 1916 Race Street, Philadelphia. Pa 19103, U.S.A.

 

Bagge, A. J. (1994). Manufactured aggregate, Quality Ash. Retrieved from www.uk.999.oy.uk on june 14, 2013.

 

Balkeme, A. A. (1992). Fly Ash as Addition to Concrete. International journal for institute of material and environmental research never lends 4 (2), 8-19.

 

Beeby, A. W. (1994). Concrete in the oceans, cracking and corrosion. Technical Report. No. 1. Cement and Concrete Association, 7(2), 1-75.

 

British Standard Institution. (1971). BS12; ordinary and Rapid hardening cement 389 cheswick         High Reed, London.

 

British Standard Institution. (1973). BS 882; part2, method of sampling and testify of light weight aggregate for concrete (metric version). British standard institution, 389 cheswick High Road, London.

 

British Standard Institution. (1975). BS 812: part; method of sampling and testing minerals               aggregate, sand and filters. British standard institution 389 cheswick High Rofel, London.

Process of Making Brick

INTRODUCTION – Brick

Brick is one of the oldest manufactured building materials in the world. As early as 14,000 BC, dried clay and hand mould brick were found in Nile deposit at lower layer in Egypt. Clay brick was important raw material for building during the time of ancient Mesopotamia’s. Modern the ancient city of Iraq use mud bricks earlier for building around 4000 BC and early Jericho wall around 8,000 BC. Starting from 5,000 BC, the clay bricks preservation by firing has been recorded and documented. The fired bricks in early civilizations were developed further as archaeological traces, such as Euphrates, Tigris and Indus use both fired and unfired bricks.

The Romans are responsible for production of fired brick and they used it, England also used it. However, brick making craft declined the departure of Romans from Britain in 412 AD and was later revived only by Flemish brick makers. Different types of bricks started developing in most countries in the world and were part of the Cargo of the first fleet to Australia, along with brik mould and also a well skilled brick maker.

Process of Making Bricks

There are three processes used in making bricks, varying primarily in the amount of water mixed with the clay.

STIFF-MUD/EXTRUDED: In this process, water is added to the clay obtained from open pit so that it will be in a form of stiff paste that can extruded into a long ribbon or column of clay through a die. The clay is sliced into brick sizes chunks by bricks cutter machine and vacuum pump may be used to extract air from the clay so that it will be strong and easy to handle.

DRY-PRESSED: In this process, clay is compressed under high pressure into mould since there is small water in the clay mix, it is fired without drying it for a long period.

SOFT-MUD: In this process, much water is added to the clay to make soft paste. After that molds are dipped in sand or water to prevent sticking. The soft paste is compressed and allows drying. This method can be use with hand..

 

HISTORY OF BRICK

HISTORY OF BRICK

 

Brick is one of the oldest manufactured building materials in the world. As early as 14,000 BC, dried clay and hand mould brick were found in Nile deposit at lower layer in Egypt.

Clay brick was important raw material for building during the time of ancient Mesopotamia’s. Modern the ancient city of Iraq use mud brick earlier for building around 4000 BC and early Jericho wall around 8,000 BC. Starting from 5,000 BC, the clay brick preservation by firing has been recorded and documented. The fired brick in early civilizations were developed further as archaeological traces, such as Euphrates, Tigris and Indus use both fired and unfired bricks.

The Romans are responsible for production of fired brick and they used it, England also used it. However, brick making craft declined the departure of Romans from Britain in 412 AD and was later revived only by Flemish brick makers. Different types of bricks started developing in most countries in the world and were part of the Cargo of the first fleet to Australia, along with brik mould and also a well skilled brick maker. Most cultures, due to their physical outstanding and engineering properties throughout the ages for building have continuously been using bricks.(Lynch, 1994; Christine, 2004).

The main raw material for brick is clay besides clayey soil, shale and soft slate which is gotten from open pit, vegetation, drainage disruption and wild life habitat. (Hendry and Khalaf, 2001).

HISTORY OF BRICK

POZZOLANS

POZZOLANS

Pozzolans as materials that contains receptive aluminic and silia which have little or no binding properties but in presence of water when mix with lime, will hardened and set like cement. In similar definition by (Lea and Howlett, 2009) the term pozzolans has two distinct meanings. The first one is the pyroclastic rocks that is essentially glassy and sometimes zeolitised, which occur in the neighborhood of pozouli.

The seconds includes all organic materials, either artificial or natural, when mix with material that can released calcium hydroxide (clinker) or mixed with calcium hydroxide (lime) which hardened in water.

History of Pozzolana

The Romans and Greeks were the first to use pozzolans in mortar lime. Crushed pottery, tiles and bricks which formed the first artificial pozzolans but also found that some of the volcanic soils were good for production of hydraulic mortar.

All this materials are used by the Romans and other countries. Nowadays, different variety of aluminum or siliceous materials are used to produce pozzolans, agricultural residue such as rice husks ash, volcanic ash, fly ash are common materials that are calcined from clay. In construction, cement market has been dominated or cowered by one product, OPC and cement or some form of binding agent is vital element.

In many developing countries in the world, OPC is sometimes scarce commodity, factor and is expensive which limited the construction at houses that are affordable. Although with the growth of the use of pozzolanes in USA and Europe, there are growing numbers of developing countries using more pozzolanes now, in combination with lime or OPC, (Howtopedia, 2006).

Importance of Pozzolana

This importance use of pozzolanic materials in concrete is stated below by (Matawal, 2005) as;
– Technological
– Economical
– Environmental

Technological: Pozzolan can change the form of the characteristic properties of cement, by decreasing or increasing its compressive strength or durability and resistance to aggressive agents and lime.

Economical: This is economically active additions and reduces the quantity of cement required.

Environmental: Bringing such addition bring about a waste material that is laid on different ashes.

(Matawal, 2005) further outlined other advantages of using pozzolanic material for partial replacement of cement in concrete production as:
– Improved workability, assessment of fresh concrete as consideration.
– Improvement of sulphate resistance in freezing and thawing.
– Increased cohesiveness or bonding strength of concrete.
– Reduction in hydration uses.
– Reduction in permeability of water tightness.
– High resistance to alkaline aggregate reactions.
– Reduction content of water, mortar and concrete mix, resulting in less shrinkage and cracking.

These outline advantages are not universal because they vary from one pozzolanic material to another. More knowledge is gain by taking one pozzalana like Rice Husk Ash

 

NATURE OF STRESS

NATURE OF STRESS

Job stress and its related condition, job burden contribute to poor physical and mental health. Employees stress is a source of discomfort and a major concern to managers and stakeholders.

In order to effectively prevent and control stress, you first need to understand the nature and causes of these conditions. A good starting point in understanding stress symptoms is to take the self – quiz presented over the issue as used here, stress is the mental and physical condition that results from a perceived threat that cannot be dealt with readily. Stress is therefore an internal response to a state of activation. The stressed person is physically and mentally aroused. Stress ordinarily occurs in a threatening or negative situation, such as receiving a major promotion.

A person experiencing stress display certain symptoms indicating that he or she is trying to cope with a systems can include a host of physiological, emotional, and behavioural reaction.

Physiological symptoms of stress include increased heart rate, blood pressure, breathing rate, pupil size and perspiration. If these physiological symptoms are servere or persist over a prolonged period, the result can be a stress-related disorder, such as a heart attack, hypertension, migraine, headache, ulcer, colitis, or allergy. Stress also lead to a chemical imbalance that adversely affects the body immune system. People experiencing emotional stress may experience difficulty shaving a common cold or recovering from sexually transmitted diseases.

Emotional symptoms of stress include anxiety, tension, depression, discouragement, boredom, prolonged fatigue, feeling of hopelessness, and various kind of defensive thinking. Note that anxiety is a general sense of dread, fear, or worry for no immediate reason, and is a symptom of stress. Behavioural symptom include nervous habits, such as facial twitching and sudden decrease in job performance due to forgetfulness and errors in concentration or judgment, increased use of alcohol and other drugs may also occur. Procrastination is another potential symptom of negative stress.

Stress has both negative and positive consequences, hindrance stressors are those stressful events and thoughts that have a negative effect on motivation and performance. In contrast, challenge stressors have a positive direct effect on motivation and performance.

People require the right amount of stress to keep them mentally and physically alert. Managers create challenge stressors by challenging workers and being passionate about work. if the stress is particularly uncomfortable or distasteful, however, it will lower job performance, particularly on complex demanding jobs. An examples of a stressor that will lower job performance for most people is a bullying, abrasive manager who wants to see the employee fail.

A person perception of something (or something) usually determines whether it acts as a challenge or hindrance stressor. For examples, a person might perceive an inspection by top-level managers to be frightening that he is valuable towards team members. Another manager might wlcome the visit as a chance to proudly display her department high-quality performance. An extensive review of research about job stress concludes that stress is less likely to lower performance when employees have high level of self-esteem and commitment to the organization.

After prolonged exposure to job stress, a person turns the risk of feeling. Job burnout is a pattern of emotional, physical and mental exhaustion n response to chronic job stressors, cynicism, apathy and indifference are the major behavioural symptoms of the burned-out workers.

TYPES OF STRESS

INTRODUCTION

stress is phenomenon which cannot be avoided in any organization or institution since everybody experience stress, so how you manage this stress can be the key to your wellbeing. A survey conducted by metal health in America found that people frequently deal with chronic stress by watching television, skipping exercise, and neglecting to eat healthy food.

TYPES OF STRESS

          According to Karl (1979) the following are the types of stress:

1. Time Stress: This is the type of stress that you experience when you worry about time, or the lack thereof. You worry about the number of things that you have to do and you fear that you will fail to achieve something important. You might feel trapped unhappy or even hopeless, common examples of time stress include worrying about deadlines or rushing to avoid being late for a meeting.
2. Anticipatory Stress: Anticipatory stress that you experience concerning the future. Sometimes this stress can be focused on a specific event, such as an upcoming presentation that you are going to give. However, anticipatory stress can also be vague and undefined, such as an overall sense of dread about the future, or a worry that “something will go wrong”.
3. Situational Stress: You experience situational stress when you are in scary situation that you have no control over. This could be an emergency more commonly however, it’s a situation that involve conflict, or a loss of status or acceptance in eyes of you group. For instance, getting laid off or making a major mistake in front of your team are examples of events that can cause situational stress.
4. Encounter Stress: Encounter stress revolves around people. You experience encounter stress when you worry about interacting with a certain person or group of people. You may not like them or you might think that they are unpredictable. Encounter stress can also occur if your role involves a lot of personal interactions with too many people.

The Concept of Stress

The Concept of Stress

INTRODUCTION

Generally, stress is phenomenon which cannot be avoided in any organization or institution since everybody experience stress, so how you manage this stress can be the key to your wellbeing. A survey conducted by metal health in America found that people frequently deal with chronic stress by watching television, skipping exercise, and neglecting to eat healthy food.

Many staff today run from organization to another thinking that they will no longer encounter stress but they refused to know that stress is a natural factor which cannot be avoided entirely but can only be controlled. Therefore, instead of facing the reality of managing the stress they are embracing the formalities of seeking for job in another organization.

It should be stated clear here that because of individual differences the impact of stress should not be totally ignored to the negative effects because what a staff considers to be stress to another staff he / she sees it as a motivator.

CONCEPT OF STRESS

Stress is not necessarily bad, it can typically be discussed in a negative and positive way. It is an opportunity when offered, gives potential gain.

According to Ribbins (2007), stress is a dynamic condition in which an individual is confronted with an opportunity, constraint, or demand related to what he or she desires and for which the outcome is perceived to be both uncertain and important.

According to Patrick and Raymond (1996), sees stress as a person’s adaptive response to a demand on the person.

Furthermore, managing stress requires a general idea of its sources and the way it affects people, the demand may be psychological, physical or both.

According to Paago (1997), define stress as an interaction between a person and its environment which present or demand threaten to exceed the persons capabilities and resources for meeting it.

According to Cary Cooper of the university of Manchester institute of science and technology (UMIST) he defines stress as a pressure which is too great for us. Stress is very much a personal issue, each one of us has his own level of tolerance of pressure at any given time, our own capacity for coping, or not coping with it. We succumb to it at different stages in our lives, we experience it uniquely, and our symptoms can be varied as our choice of friends. Stress can be experienced from things that are happening in our personal lives in isolation from or in conjunction with the pressure from works. Sometimes we amaze ourselves by the way we seem to cope with juggling twenty-nine balls in the air at one moment, and the next we are floored by what seems objectively, to be the smallest request from a partner or a boss. Job stress and its related conditions, job burnout, contributes to poor physical and mental health, employees stress is a sources of discomfort and a major concern to managers and stakeholders.

According to the attitudes in American workplace Gallup Poll, workers stress $300 billion annually due to lost productivity, increased worker’s compensation claims and health care costs. Also, an estimation of 45% of unwanted job turnover is stress related. Another survey indicated that 50% of employees miss one to two days of work per year due to stress, and 46% admitted that they do not come to work one to four days per year. A study with firefighters suggested that being emotionally exhausted leads to lowered motivation.

Two studies conducted in a variety of organizations showed that burnout in the form of emotional exhaustion leads to lowered job performance, less organizational citizenship behavior and an intention to quit.

Historical Background of Federal Polytechnic Nasarawa

Historical Background of Federal Polytechnic Nasarawa

 

The Federal Polytechnic Nasarawa was established in 1983 by the Federal Government of Nigeria. The intention of the Federal government to establish the polytechnic was predicted by the governments desire to revolutionize the society technologically. This is spelt out in the objective Decree No. 28 of 1987. Amongst the important objectives is:

To train people to acquire technical and vocational skills which are needed for the economic and social development of Nigeria especially in the field of agriculture, industry and commerce.

At the Federal Polytechnic Nasarawa academic work commenced in January 1984 at the Central Primary School dubbed temporary site with an initial intake of 220 students enrolled in two schools: School of environmental and business studies. A department of liberal studies course and administration of pre-national diploma programmes. An important land mark in the development of the polytechnic was initial accreditation of all the programmes in 1985 and commencement of HND programmes in 1986 in business administration and management, accountancy, secretarial studies, town and regional planning.

In 1986, the minister of education, Professor Jibril Aminu cut the sod to begin the physical development at the permanent site, with the completion of classroom blocks and offices or school of environmental studies, the permanent site was commissioned for use in December 1984. During this period, national diploma (ND) programmes in Architectural technology, Building and Quantity Surveying (BOS), Town and Regional Planning and Estate Management, school of business and management studies; Accountancy and secretarial studies were initiated.

The rapid academic development continued in 1992 / 1993 session with commencement of ND programmes in Electrical Electronic Engineering Technology, Science Laboratory Technology and Statistics. These programmes had associated with them requisite laboratories and workshops fully equipped to meet the requirements or accreditation. Indeed with this development, the polytechnic can now be said to be a full-fledged technical institution offering programme in core engineering, Applied Science, environmental and business studies.

Now, the polytechnic has a student population of over 7,000 in regulate student’s programmes spread over 21 academic departments in four schools.

An additional school of basic and remedial studies is responsible for IJMB programme and weekend courses.

Indeed, from humbler beginning the Polytechnic has grown to an institution of stature in the country, drawing students and staff from allover federation and beyond.

Source: Federal Polytechnic Nasarawa official website

FACTORS AFFECTING INDIGENOUS CONSTRUCTION CONTRACTORS IN BUILDING PRODUCTION IN NIGERIA

FACTORS AFFECTING INDIGENOUS CONSTRUCTION CONTRACTORS IN BUILDING PRODUCTION IN NIGERIA

The following are factors affecting indigenous construction contractors in building production in Nigeria:

Monitoring and Control Strategies:

Monitoring and control are two management functions that play a very important role in project success. Planning defines the strategies, tactics and methods for achieving project objectives, while monitoring and control provide the required checks and balances for ensuring that the plans and overall project objectives are achieved. Plans cannot bring about the required end by themselves; they must be complemented with monitoring and control to achieve their goals.

Arditi, (1985), Mauricio & Carlos, (2002) confirmed that the performance of companies in project delivery depends largely on their control structures as well as their production planning. Kharbanda& Pinto, (1996) maintained that most, if not all, major project failures could be traced to inadequate and inaccurate planning or blind adherence to the originally formulated plans regardless of how the environment changed in the interim.

Monitoring and control are regarded as management functions and are processes in the delivery of a project. Enshassi, (1996) describes project monitoring as the process of collecting, recording and reporting information concerning any or all aspects of the performance of a project. Otieno, (2000) describes it as a continuous assessment of a programme or project in relation to the agreed implementation schedule or plan.

Communication

Communication in small firms is often good, although poor communication skills of the manager can be a problem (Fryer, 1985). In developing countries, there is often no means of communication between the workers on site and the contractor’s office. Urgent site problems, therefore, cannot be solved immediately because the site workers cannot talk to their manager or owner.

The ILO (1987) has further noted that the level of supervision by the client can also affect the performance of the contractor if the client supervisor is not qualified, or there is no effective communication between the contractor and the client. Shortage or the lack of client supervision staff in some developing countries also contributes to the contractor’s problem.
This may result in the contractor doing remedial work, which can be very costly for small contractors – reducing profit margins and putting a strain on cash flow.

Ineptitude of Contractors

Most indigenous construction contractors had no knowledge of or experience in contracting business. Many of these contractors live far away from the sites of the projects and probably made occasional visits of the projects only. The made it difficult for the divisional engineers to supervise the projects effectively and since the contractors were actually not interested in the actual work, mobilization fees collected were not used for the purpose for which it was given.]

Occurrence of Reworks

To improve quality it is necessary to understand the root causes of rework, that is, the basic reason for its existence or set of conditions that stimulate its occurrence in a process. A process consists of a number of activities or operations which acting on inputs in a given sequence transforms them into outputs.

A process may consist of both value adding or non-value adding activities. The former are activities that convert materials and/or information towards that which is required by the customer and the latter are activities that take time, resources or require storage and do not add value to the output.

Cultural Impact

Local building contractors employ people from their family, the clan and the village. It has found that, when a contractor employ only relatives, work input is very low when the owner is away from the site (stretton,1984) If the contractor decide otherwise and hire workers from outside the village they are alienated from the village (stretton, 1984)

Corruption

The Longman’s Dictionary of Contemporary English (1995) defines corruption as dishonest, illegal or immoral behaviour especially from someone with power. Corruption, according to Ayodele (2008) implies using one’s power in a dishonest, illegal or immoral way to get an advantage for oneself.

According to Ayodele (2008) from socio political – cum – financial perspective, Boeninger (1991) percieves corruption as “any action taken in socioeconomic, political and financial realms which is morally unacceptable, bad an or illegal. Expanding Boeninger’s conception, Lash (2003) explains that corruption is immoral and dishonest or exploitation of power in economic financial and political spheres for personal gains. According to Ayodele (2008) an examination of these definitions and others not stated here indicates that corruption is a manifestation of one or a combination of:
i) Fraud – a reflection of any instance in which are party deceives or takes advantage of another commonly regarded nowadays as advanced fee fraud (419)
ii) Bribery – an illegal influence on any person in the exercise of public duty
iii) Forgery – a fraudulent alteration of a written document or seal with the intent of injuring the interests of another person.
iv) Embezzlement– a wrongful acquisition of property by a person who has been entrusted with such property.
v) Extortion – a crime of obtaining something such as money from somebody using illegal methods or persuasion.

Political Interference

Omole (1986) reveals that 80 percent of the contractors in Nigeria are indigenous companies. The government agencies, in most cases are teleguided by the political heavy weight to award contract to party stalwarts at very high prices.

The consultants estimates are disregarded in most cases when awarding contracts and where possible manipulated. It is a general knowledge that governments and parastaltals particularly during the last political era give a very short time to consultants to prepare contract document for tender purposes.

Additional Work

Additional work is related to design changes, which is due to lack of detailed briefing on the functional and technical requirements of the projects by the clients (Mansfield et al, 1994).

Wrong Method of Estimation

This factor could be attributed to the unpredicted inflationary trend, lack of adequate training and experience at the senior management level, and fraudulent practices Mansfield et al (1994)

Cash Flow

Indigenous construction contractors in developing countries are often the ones on the fringe of the construction industry and undertake work unwanted by the large contractors. Most of their work, comprising construction, maintenance and refurbishment work, is from the public sector.

Consequently, they are likely to be greatly affected by the state of the country’s economy because of, for example, changes in the government’s expenditure policy (Ruddock, 1992). As most government agencies experience financial problems, there are delays of payments to contractors – with a consequent adverse effect on the contractor’s cash flow (Ofori, 1991). This then affects the operation of the contractor, ultimately hindering the projects from being delivered as required (Adam, 1997; Jannadi, 1997).
Many small contractors also experience difficulties in obtaining money from financial institutions to finance their business due to the high levels of bankruptcy in the industry, hence the initial capital for the business must come from the contractor (Miles 1979). In addition, most small and medium contractors in developing countries have very limited funds as they are seldom able to offer the necessary fixed assets as collateral (Ofori, 1991).
Indigenous construction contractor’s therefore operate on very tight budgets, and when they make a loss on one project they tend not to have sufficient resources to continue in business (Stretton, 1984). Stretton further noted that the success of indigenous construction contractors is dependent on the type of contract used – lump sum contracts requiring contractors to have sufficient finances for purchasing materials and paying workers.

Waste On Site

It seems that the little waste of construction material on site should have a very minor effect on the total material cost. However, this minor effect can reach up to 50 % of the total material margin of a project. So waste on site has to be considered on tendering any project (Elinwa and Silas, 1993)

Transportation Challenges

As the government increases the price of fuel, transportation companies raise the cost of their services to cover the fuel increase and that obviously translates to an increase in transportation cost and bad road also contribute to this because so many vehicle will refuse to go in to business with these contractors once they know the road to the site is so bad.

Equipment Cost

Equipment cost becomes more expensive as new technology or special equipment is requested. Most heavy equipment run by diesel fuel and the price of diesel fuel has increased significantly.

Mode of Financing Bonds and Payments

Ogunlana et al (1996) reported that financing and payment of completed works is responsible for cost escalation in Nigeria. Generally, contractors are sometimes not paid in accordance with the contract conditions. There are cases where clients fail to honour Architect’s certificate of payment for up to 6 months or more whereas the contact conditions, in most cases stipulates about 28 days .

Most contractors when preparing their tenders make allowance for partial financing of the project. They charge the clients for payments of interests and bank charges on moneys they anticipate to borrow from the banks to finance these projects (Omole, 1986)

The irregular financing of public projects is a major cause of liquidity problem for contractors: however, contractors can be paid in accordance with the contract agreement if clients can generate the availability of adequate funds before the project commences (Mansfield et al, 1994)

Construction Management Skills

Deficiency in planning and management skills is said to be the greatest single problem for small-scale contractors generally (ILO, 1987). In developing countries, the local construction industry lacks the capacity and capability of undertaking large construction projects, resulting in the continual domination of expatriate construction com undertaking all major construction projects (Adam, 1997). Consequently, smaller companies find it hard to acquire experience in their type of project (Jannadi, 1997) leading to contractors with limited management and technical skills (Ofori, 1991).
This affects their ability to acquire building materials, manage their workers, successfully bid for work (Stretton, 1984) and generally contributing to poor performance (Ofori, 1991).

Given the fluctuation in the building industry, employment in the construction industry in third world countries offers less employment security (Stretton, 1984). In addition, small contractors in developing countries experience a shortage in skilled labour due to the salary and the security of employment offered by large construction companies being greater than that offered by the small contractor (ILO, 1987). Furthermore, more young graduates are being assigned to oversee projects and their “lack of skills and experience at both the supervisor and worker level” has been a contributing factor (Lewis, 1984).

Contract Documentation

Inapproriate contract documents has been identified as one of the most common problems affecting the operation of small contractors Ofori (1991). In developing countries, most public sector clients do not use a standard set of contract documents and building plans.

The methods of construction are also different which often confuses the contractors.

Working Relationships

Clients are hard to find and easy to lose and a contractor who finishes a contract on time and with a good reputation will be one step ahead of his competitor when the next invitation to tender comes along (Miles, 1980). However indigenous construction contractors have been known to express disappointment with their working relationship with the client’s representative – mainly because of the unsympathetic attitude to the contractor’s problems regarding shortage of materials and the delay in payments.