INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY AND TEACHING THE SOCIAL SCIENCES: OBSTACLES AND CHALLENGES

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INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY AND TEACHING THE SOCIAL SCIENCES: OBSTACLES AND CHALLENGES

ABSTRACT

This study was a survey which explored ICT usage and challenges among social science teachers. Thus, the main purpose of this study was to identify social science teachers’ perceptions in implementing ICT tools in teaching in the classroom; identify the extent to which teachers use ICT tools in teaching and learning in the classroom; and to determine the challenges of using ICT tools in teaching among social science teachers. Three research questions were posed to guide this study and a questionnaire was designed to collect data from a sample size of 50 social science teachers. From the results, social science teachers indicated that ICT is of much help to them in the areas of upgrading of knowledge, research and publication. Weak infrastructure, financial constraints, lack of interest and lack of access to ICT facilities were identified as the major obstacles to ICT usage among academic staff. Furthermore, Social science teachers indicated that ICT is of little or no help to them in the areas of organization of student data; giving of assignments to students and preparing of course outline or content.  Recommendation made include providing compulsory free, adequate training opportunity for teachers by the school management.

chapter one

Introduction

1.1       Background of the Study

Rapid developments in information and communication technologies (ICTs) in recent years have resulted in significant changes in the way the world operates and communicates (Ogbomo, 2011). This in turn has had an impact on educational and training needs, both in terms of the content and the delivery of educational and training services, but also there has been increasing pressure on decision makers to acquire new technologies. Simultaneously, forms of ICT are multiplying with an increasing array of ICT options for decision makers to choose from when integrating ICT into education and training(Makela, 2012). The new technology has obvious benefits. It will also cause a growing mental burden of lifelong learning required by the continuous changes inherent in a working life based on computers and world wide networks. The educational authorities and organizations must promote networking of the educational system and create open learning environments to support the development from “once-and-for-all” training towards lifelong learning. Individual study opportunities must be improved at all levels of education, and study methods, teaching material, as well as the required information services need to be developed. New types of “information products” for lifelong learning purposes must be developed.

Advances in information and communication technology have made it necessary for polytechnics and other institutions involved in teacher training programmes to be actively engaged in the use of ICT(Moyo, 2014). This view is further supported by Agboola (2015) who observed that with the proliferation of computer software in the market, consumers continue to rely on the software vendors for knowledge of not only how to operate the new software, but also how to profitably optimize its use. In Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) countries, research consensus holds that the most effective uses of ICT are those in which the teacher, aided by ICTs, can challenge students’ understanding and thinking, either through whole class discussions or individual and small group work using ICTs(Archibong & David, 2009). ICTs are seen as important tools to enable and support the move from traditional teacher-centered teaching styles to more learner-centered methods (Anunobi, 2015). Pedagogical practices of teachers using ICT can range from only small enhancements in teaching practices using what are essentially traditional methods, to more fundamental changes in their approach to teaching. ICTs can be used to reinforce existing pedagogical practices as well as to change the way teachers and students interact(Dede, 2016).

Faced with this situation, policy makers in many countries worldwide thought that to simply equip educational and training institutions with Personal computers and train teachers in their use would prepare learners for the demands of the 21^stcentury (Gambari, 2016). However, simply providing access to ICT is not going to radically change education systems for the better. A clear picture of what education should be seeking to achieve is the need for ICT to be utilized to their full potential within education systems. In order to make successful use of ICT in enhancing the reach and quality of teaching and learning, policy makers need to be aware of how ICT can be of best value in their country’s education system, and need to develop a supportive policy environment and framework at the national level for the integration of ICT into their education systems(Hong, 2016).

The field of social sciences has been evolving with advancement of technology also. Many theories, statistical software and teaching aids which are IT-based have been developed to aid in the teaching of social science. Technological literacy is required for learning with technologies to be possible, implying a two-step process in which lecturers learn about the technologies before they can actually use them to teach. Teaching social sciences through ICT combines learning about Computers and internet with teaching with them. It involves learning the technological skills ‘just-in-time” or when the learner needs to learn them as he or she engages in a curriculum-related activity. This project provides an insight into the prospects and challenges encountered in the teaching of social sciences with ICT.

1.2       Statement of the Problem

In the information age, social science teachers are continuously confronted with the occurrence of new opportunities and challenges, which are on one side the consequence of the rapid rate of discoveries in the field of social sciences, and on the other side, the result of a remarkable development of information technology. Both simultaneously enable new possibilities and are a source of new ideas that can be effectively implemented in teaching and learning processes in social science education. This competitive global information –based economy puts much pressure on the teachers to produce graduates capable of functioning in the new world economic and societal environment brought about by technological developments. In order to meet up with societal demands, teachers around the world are moving rapidly to incorporate information and communication technologies (ICT) into all aspects of their core business of teaching. Though much can be said to be accomplished, there are also challenges encountered. Due to ICT’s importance in society as well as in the future of education, identifying the possible challenges to integrating these technologies in the  teaching of social science would be an important step in improving the quality of teaching and learning.

1.3       Aim and Objectives of the Study

This study aims at providing teachers’ perception in the use of ICT to teach social sciences. The specific objectives of the study are:

1. To identify social science teachers’ perceptions in implementing ICT tools in teaching in the classroom.
2. To identify that to what extent do teachers use ICT tools in teaching and learning in the classroom.  
3. To determine the challenges of using ICT tools in teaching among social science teachers.

1.4       Research Questions

This project seeks to answer the following research questions:

1. What is the perception of social science teachers in implementing ICT tools in teaching in the classroom
2. To what extent do social science teachers use ICT tools in teaching and learning in the classroom?
3. What are the challenges of using ICT tools in teaching among social science teachers?

1.4       Justification for the Study

The realization of the benefits of ICT in the social science educational process to a large extent depends on the teachers that play crucial role in any innovation that takes place in the educational system. Acquisition and utilization of ICT in the teaching-learning process poses a great challenge to teachers because it requires them to continuously adapt to the changes brought about by the technological revolution. To this end, it is important that social science teachers need to be aware of, and understand, the innovative potential of the technology that is available for their research and teaching and that they need to develop specific, appropriate and new competences to cope with the technological challenges in their workplace. In order to accomplish this and take advantage of the potential of ICT,  it is imperative that teachers are provided with assistance to develop the necessary repertoire of skills required to use the new technologies, whether they be online (using internet technology) or offline (using static computerized technology). This study provides an insight to the extent to which social science teachers use the ICT in teaching and the challenges they face. Future researchers and academic scholars can use the findings of this study as a base on researching on the prospects and challenges in the use of ICT in teaching social sciences.

1.5       Scope and Limitation of the Study

This research study focused on assessing the prospects and challenges in the use of ICT in teaching social science. The study will focus on social science teachers (lecturers) in the Federal Polytechnic, Nasarawa.The study has been limited by the fact that time constraint due to the COVID-19 pandemic, coupled with other academic activities, imposed a severe limitation on the study.

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COMPARATIVE STUDY ON THE PRODUCTION OF OXIDIZED STARCH FROM SORGHUM USING SODIUM HYPOCHLORITE AND POTASSIUM PERMANGANATE

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COMPARATIVE STUDY ON THE PRODUCTION OF OXIDIZED STARCH FROM SORGHUM USING SODIUM HYPOCHLORITE AND POTASSIUM PERMANGANATE

ABSTRACT

This project is the production of oxidized starch from sorghum starch using sodium hypochlorite and potassium permanganate. After the analysis  Table 1 shows that; the starch oxidized with NaOCl has the lowest percentage yield of (88%) as compare with KMn04 (91 %). And Table  2 shows the effect  of sodium  hypochlorite  concentration   on starch viscosity. Increase  in concentration  lead to the decrease in starch viscosity.  The sample produced by treatment with chlorine at 5.0% this effect was more pronounced (at 67.2.2^oC the torque 4% was at 29.7), for a high concentration starch slurry (20%). This starch also presented cold swelling, with detectable viscosity (around 20% of torque) at the beginning of the analysis (50^oC), these results are in agreement with those of that found lower pasting temperature for different corn starches when oxidized, mainly at the concentration 5.0% of  NaOCl related with structural weakening of the starch granules.

CHAPTER ONE

1.0       INTRODUCTION 

Oxidized starch is widely used in food and non-food industries where film formation and adhesion properties are desired. The major application of oxidized starch is as a surface sizing agent and as a coating binder in paper industry. Native starch paste is often not used in  such  applications  because  of  the  low  solubility  and  high  viscosity  of  the  pastes. Aqueous solutions of native  starch are more prone to retrogradation than those of oxidized starch.

Based on the behavioral  diversities of native starches such as being  biodegradable, the presence of functional  groups and its macroscopic  granular structure,  the starch chemist by selection of raw material followed by application of selected modification techniques can devise products with  a broad range of functional characteristics.

Oxidized starch is produced  by reaction of starch with oxidizing agent. During the course of the reaction  several  reactions occur which  leads to the  introduction  of carbonyl and carboxyl groups and degradation  of starch molecules.  Hence oxidized starch exhibits  low viscosity  due to depolymerisation  and  improved stability of starch dispersion  from the presence of functional  groups.  (Maurer, 1999).

Starch can be oxidized with oxidizing agent namely periodate, dichromate, permanganate, persulphate,   hypochlorite and hydrogen peroxide. Depending on the starch source,  it has been  established  that  the  property  of  oxidized  starch  produced  is  influenced  by the concentration of the oxidizing   agent and the rate of addition, time, temperature and pH.in the commercial practice,  alkaline  hypochlorite is the common used oxidizing agent. The other known oxidizing agents are rarely  used.  The reason for this preference is  not clear and seems to be based on mere convention. (Miller,   1995).

Also  compared  to other cereals  sorghum starch  is not commonly  utilized  m industrial applications  though its  grain composition  is very much similar to the most popularly used cereal corn.  (Watson, 1984).  Sorghum is also readily available and cheap.

1.1       SORGHUM

Sorghum is a genus of plants and grass family.  Most species  are native to Australia with  some extending  to Africa, Asia, Mesoamerica and certain islands in Indian and pacific oceans. (FAO, 1995).

One of the specie is grown for grain while many others are used as fodder plants either intentionally   cultivated or allowed to grow naturally in pasture lands. The plants are cultivated   in warm  climates   world-wide   and naturalized   in many  places.   (FAO, 1995). Other   names   include   durra,    Egyptian    millet,    guinea   corn;    milo   etc.   sorghum    for centuries    has  been  one  of  the  most  important   staple  foods  for  millions   of poor  rural people   in the  semiarid   tropics   of  Asia  and  Africa.   For some impoverished    region of the   world,   sorghum    remains    a  principal    source   of  energy,    proteins,   vitamins    and minerals.   Sorghum   grows  in harsh  environments    where  other  crops  do not grow  well such  as cassava.

Grain  sorghum   is the third  most  important   cereal  crop  grown  in the  United  States  and the  fifth  most  important   cereal   crop  grown   in the  world.   In 2010, Nigeria  was the world’s  largest producer of grain sorghum followed by the US and India.

1.2       ORIGIN

Rich  finds  of  sorghum  bicolor  have  been  recovered  from  Qasribrim  in Egyptian Nubia,  the  wild  example  have  been  dated  back  to  circa  800-600BCE  and  the domesticated one no earlier than CE 100. Most cultivated varieties of sorghum can be traced  back to  Africa  where  they  grow  on savannah  lands.  Sorghum  was  planted extensively  in parts of the Middle East, No11h Africa and Europe (Wayne and Richard, 2005). the   name  sorghum  comes  from  Italian  sorgo  in   turn  from  latinsyricum(granum) meaning grain of Syria.

Sorghum  is  well  adapted  to  growth  m  hot,  arid  or  semi-arid  areas.  The  many subspecies   are  divided   into  four   groups  grain   Sorghums   such    as  milo,   grass sorghum(for  paste  and  hay),sweet  sorghums  formerly  called  guinea  corn  used  to produce sorghum syrups and broom corn for brooms and brushes.

The FAO reports that 440000 square kilometres were devoted worldwide to the production in 2004.In the US sorghum is used primarily as a maize com substitute for livestock   feed  because  their  nutritional  values   are  very  similar.  Some  hybrids commonly grown for feed have been developed to deter birds and therefore contain a high concentration  of tannins  and  phenolic  compounds  which  causes  the need  for additional processing to allow the grain to be digested.  (FAO, 2010).

1.3       CULTIVATION

Sorghum requires  an average  temperature   of at least  25°C  to produce  maximum   grain yields  in a given  year.  Maximum   photosynthesis    is achieved   at daytime   temperatures of at  least  30°C.   Night  time   temperature    below    13°C   for  more  than  a few  days  can severely  reduce  the plants  potential   grain  production.     Sorghum  cannot  be planted   until soil  temperatures    have  reaches   l 7°C.   the  Jong   growing   season  usually   90-120 days, causes   yields    to  be  severely    decreased   if plants  are  not  in  the  ground   early  enough sorghum   in  general    is   a  very  competitive    crop  and  does  well   in   competition    with weeds   in  narrow   rows.    Sorghum   produces   a  chemical    compound   called   sorgoleone, which  the  plant  uses  to  combat  weeds.  The  chemical    is  so effective   in preventing   the growth   of  weeds   it  sometime    prohibits      the  growth   of  other  crops   harvested   on  the same  field  (F AO,   1995).

Sorghum’s    growth  habit  is similar    to that  of  maize  but  with  more  side  shouts  and  a more  extensively   branched   root  system.   The  root  system  is  fibrous  and can extend  to a depth  of  up  to  l .2m.   The  plant  finds  75%  of  its water   in the  top  metre  of  soil  and because   of  this,   in  dry  areas;   the  plan’s   production    can  be  severely   affected   by  the water   holding    capacity   of  the  soil.  The  plant  require   up  to  70- 100mm of  moisture every   10  days  in early  stages  of growth,   and  as  sorghum   progresses   through   growth stages   and  the  roots  penetrate    more   deeply   in  to  the  soil  to  tap   into   hidden   water reserves,    the  plants   need  progressively    less   water.   By  the  time  the  seeds  heads  are filling  optimum  water  conditions   are down  to about  50mm  every  10 days.  (Wayne  and Smith,   2005).

1.4       SCIENTIFIC   CLASSIFICATION

Kingdom:        Plantae

Order:              Poales

Family:            Poaceae

Subfamily:       Panicoideae

Tribe:               Andropogoneae

Genus:             Sorghum

1.5       COMPOSITION

The structure and composition of the sorghum kernel is  quite similar  to that of corn. The  kernels  are  flattened  spheres  measuring  about  4.0mm   long,  3.5mm  wide  and 2.5mm  thick. The weight of individual  kernels ranges from 8 to 50mg with  an average of 28mg.  colors of the prehybrid varieties range from white  through pale orange, tan and  red to dark red- brown.  Most grain in commercial  channels is a brownish  red colour  because  one  or both  parents  of the  best hybrids  have  that  colour.  (Martin,2007).

The structure of the sorghum germ is identical to that of corn germ.  The endosperm differs  from  that  of  the  corn  only  in  the  relative  proportions  floury  and  horny endosperm entirely surrounds the floury region. The dense peripheral endosperm layer comprises  a  larger portion  of the  kernel  than  in  corn  and  results  in much  greater problems in much greater problems during starch purification.  (Watson et al, 2005).

The pericarp of grain sorghums show the most differences from corn.it  is covered with a thick   layer  of wax.  (Seckinger  et al,  1996) most varieties  have a thick mesocarp layer in the pericarp layer containing very small unrecoverable starch granules; some varieties  have a thick orange pigmented  testa  layer (Sanders,  1995) which  shatters during wet milling and adds coloured particles to the starch. The epidermis  layer of pericarp  of some varieties contains water- soluble, flavone-type  pigments ranging in colour  from  red to orange.  In some  varieties,  a purple  flavonoid  contained  in the glume  which  surrounds  each  seed  leaches  into  the  seed  and  gives  a  gray  cast  to isolated starch.

1.6       CHEMICAL     COMPOSITION

Proximate Analysis of Grain Sorghum.

	Range % dry basis	Average % dry basis
Water(%  wet basis)	8-20	15.5
Starch	60- 77	74.1
Protein (Nx6.25)	6.6-16	11.1
Fat (CCl4)	1.4 – 6. 1	3.7
Ash	1.2 – 7.1	1.5
Crude fiber	0.4-13.4	2.6

 (Miller, 1995}   ..

The chemical composition of commercial grain sorghum based on proximate analysis is  shown above.  The grain sorghum differs from corn in minor ways. Moisture content is generally lower  because the grain  dries  more in the field before harvest compared with corn; starch and protein contents are 1-2%  higher,  while total fat is always lower because the germ constitutes  a smaller proportion of the kernel than it does in corn. Furthermore  the  pericarp  wax  amounts  to  about  8% of  the total  fat  and  must  be removed  in  refining crude oil. (Hubbard et al, 2005).   Analysis   of the wax indicates that it is comprised of saturated fattyacids, aldehydes and alcohols of 27-30 carbons atoms. (Bianchi  et al,  1997).  All sorghum varieties  contains tannins but dark- brown, bird resistant varieties  contain  tannin  levels so high as so reduce digestibility   when fed. (Maxon and Rooney, 2002).

1.7       STARCH

Starch or amylum  is a carbohydrate  consisting   of a large number  of glucose  units joined  by glycosidic   bonds  (a  covalent  bond that joins  a carbohydrate  molecule to another group which may or may not be another carbohydrate).  This polysaccharide   is produced by most green plants as an energy store.  It is the most common carbohydratein  human   diets  and  is  contained    in  large  amounts   in  such  staple   foods   as  potatoes, wheat,  maize,   rice and cassava.

Pure starch  is  a white,  tasteless   and  odourless   powder  that  is  insoluble     in  cold   water and alcohol.  It consist of two types of molecules the linear and helical  amylase and the branched amylopectin.  Depending  on the plant, starch generally contains 20 to 25% amylase and 75 to 85%  amylopectin by weight. (Brown and Poon, 2005).

Structure  of Amylose molecule

Structure  of Amylopectin molecule

1.  7.1 AMYLOSE   CONTENT  OF VARIOUS   STARCHES

Starch source	% Amylose
Waxy rice	0
High amylose  corn	70
Corn	28
Cassava	17
Waxy sorghum	0
Wheat	26
Sweet potato	18
Arrow root	21
Sago	26
Potato	20

(FAO,    1995).

1.  7.2 AMYLOPECTIN  CONTENT  OF VARIOUS STARCHES

Starch source	% amylopectin
Waxy rice	100
High amylose  corn	30
Corn	70-72
Cassava	83
Waxy sorghum	100
Wheat	74
Sweet potato	82
Arrow root	79
Sago	74
Potato	80

(FAO,  1995)

 Starch-possess properties such as high viscosity,   insolubility,   low dispersion rate and stability which makes its application  unsuitable for use in food products as thickening agent,  stabilizer or emulsifier;  in pharmaceuticals as a disintegrant; in construction; oil exploration;  textile and as a binder  in paper industry.  It is as a result of this, that starch is  modified  to  allow  it function  properly  under conditions  frequently  encountered during processing or storage so as to increase their stability  against excessive  heat, acid, shear, time, cooling  or freezing; to change their texture;  to decrease or increase their viscosity;   to lengthen  or shorten gelatinization  time;  or to increase their visco-stability.  (Smith et. al,  2005).

1.8       STARCH MODIFICATION

Starch has various applications  in industry. And to obtain or effect its use in any of this industry its modification is required. In general the susceptibility of starch modification is determined primarily by the fact that the material is biodegradable, its macroscopic granular structure and by the presence of certain functional groups. Moreover  depending on the location of the hydroxyl group and the bond type (alpha (l-4)   glycosidic  versus  alpha  (1-6)-glycosidic),   starch  reveals  different  properties when chemical modification is concerned.

Hydroxyl group at carbon C-6 is  primarily alcohol while at C-2 and C-3 carbons it is secondary alcohols. (Bemiller  et al 2009).

It is the presence of the three (3) hydroxyl groups in glucose  that makes it susceptible to substitution reactions and enables the number of possible modification of starch.

The grain size of the starch also affects the reactivity. The larger the grains are, the

higher the modification  susceptibility  is as external factors have easier access to the larger  grains. (Lewandowicz and Maczynski, 2000).

1.8.1    GRANULE SIZE DISTRIBUTION OF VARIOUS STARCHES

Starch species	Grain size range (µm)	Average size (µm)
Waxy rice	2-13	5.5
High  amylase starch	4-22	9.8
Corn	5-25	14.3
Cassava	3-28	14
Sorghum	3-27	16
Wheat	3-34	19.5
Sweet potato	4-40	18.5
Arrow root	9-40	23
Sago	15-50	33
Potato	10-70	36

Starch is modified according to the modification  process utilized  and is divided into three (3) main groups;

1.9       PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF OXIDIZED  STARCH

• Oxidized  starch is  whiter  than the native starch and the degree of whiteness increases  with the extent of treatment. (Hall et al, 2011).
• They are sensitive  to heat, tending  to yellow or brown when exposed to high temperature.  This yellowing  tendency  during drying  has  been related to the aldehyde   content.  With  increasing  aldehyde  content,  the  oxidized  starch becomes increasingly yellow on storage., (Walton, 2010).
• Oxidized starches gelatinize at a lower temperature than native starches.
• They produce aqueous dispersions of greater clarity and lower viscosity.  These dispersions   have fewer tendencies to set back or gel, (Anne,   2004).

1.10     WHY STARCH  IS OXIDIZED.

• Obtain low viscosity
• Obtain high-solid dispersions and resistance to viscosity increases or gelling in aqueous dispersion.
• Cause depolymerisation  which results in a lower viscosity  dispersion.
• Introduce a carbonyl  and carboxyl groups which minimize  retrogradation  of amylase thus giving viscosity stability.
• Improve whiteness and reduce microbial content, (Maurer,  1999).

1.11     APPLICATIONS OF OXIDIZED STARCH

• PAPER  INDUSTRY: About  80-85% of  Oxidized  starch  is used  primarily  in  paper  industry  as a  paper coating binder where it’s  high fluidity  and good binding and adhesive properties  make it  effective  in high  solids  pigmented  coating  colours.   (Lucas  and  Fletcher,  2012). Oxidized  starches  were  also  used  for  paper  and paperboard  surface  sizing to  seal pores, tie down loose surface fibers, improve surface strength, and provide hold out of printing inks. Viscosity stability of oxidized starch dispersions  as well as the range of viscosities   available   made  them  particularly  suitable.   (Zuderveld  and  Stoutjesdijk, 2005).
• TEXTILE  INDUSTRY: Starch has a long  history   in the  manufacture    of textiles;   it is used  primarily   as warp sizing    but  also   in  finishing   and   printing   (Radley,    1998).   The  high   fluidity,   stable viscosity,   and  flow  properties   at high  solids  of oxidized   starch  allows  for greater  add• on to the yarn  and provides  good abrasion  protection.   Such  starches  are readily  soluble and can be desized  from  the woven  cloth. Oxidized   starches   may  be  used  in back-  filling  where   a mixture   of  starch  and  filler such  as clay  is applied   to the  back  of a fabric  to fill the  interstices   of the  weave  and impart  opacity   and  stiffness.   The  lower  oxidized   starch  penetrates   fabric  to  a greater extent  than do higher  viscosity   starches.  (Moore,  2012).
• CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY: Oxidized  starches are also used in the fabrication of construction materials such as insulation and wall boards and acoustic tiles to provide adhesive, binding and sizing properties.
• FOOD  INDUSTRY: In food industry, slightly  oxidized starches have been used in batters and beading’s for foodstuffs such as fried fish where it is claimed to give good adhesion to the food. It is used as stabilizers  in ice-cream and milk pudding production.  Oxidized  starch can  also  replace  Arabic  gum  due to  its excellent  stability  leading  to a  clear  food product.
• LAUNDRY: Oxidized starch is used in laundry finishing, sometimes in aerosol cans for home use. (Antinori and Rutenberg, 2000).

1.12     JUSTIFICATION OF THE  WORK

The application of starch in the paper, food and textile industry is very important as  it  has  numerous  advantages.  Native  starch  has  high  viscosity  and  other functional properties which makes its application unsuitable (Gollieb and Capelle, 2005).  It is as a result that starch is modified to allow it function properly.

The study is expected to provide information  on how to produce oxidized starch using the  suitable  oxidizing  agent  and to  study the  effect  of concentration  on starch. This information will serve to clear our doubt on why alkaline hypochlorite is mostly used for the oxidation of starch.

1.13     SCOPE  OF THE WORK

The study will be based on the oxidation of sorghum starch using two oxidizing agent viz; NaOCI and KMnO₄ at different concentration. Also the viscosity  and viscosity  stability will  be determined.

1.14     LIMITATION OF THE  STUDY

In any research there must be some short falls and this research is not an exception since  sodium  bisulphite  (NaHSO₃)    is the most  used reducing  agent  its  lack of availability  lead to the use of sodium thiosulpbate  (Na₂S₂O₃). Also lack of basic equipment apparatus such as temperature controlled water bath,  rheometer lead  to the use of other modified method.

1.15     AIM AND OBJECTIVES

• Oxidizing   sorghum   starch   using  two   oxidizing    agents   viz;   Sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl) and Potassium permanganate (KMnO₄).
• To establish the oxidizing agent suitable for the oxidation of starch.
• To  determine  the  effect  of  different  concentration  on  physicochemical properties  of  sorghum  starch  which  could  provide   information   used  to improve the manufacturing  process as well as the product properties  for some certain application

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PRODUCTION OF BIODIESEL FROM PALM KERNEL OIL USING IRON OXIDE (FeO) AND SODIUM HYDROXIDE (NaOH) CATALYST

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PRODUCTION OF BIODIESEL FROM PALM KERNEL OIL USING IRON OXIDE (FeO) AND SODIUM HYDROXIDE (NaOH) CATALYST

ABSTRACT

In the production of biodiesel a wide variety of vegetable oils can be used as raw material. In this research palm kernel oil was used. After the production of biodiesel using palm kernel oil (PKO) the physiochemical analysis carried out showed that the PKO diesel fuel fell in the range of literature for biodiesel and close to that of the petroleum diesel fuel. The experimental value of sodium hydroxide (NaOH) biodiesel produced properties showed: Specific gravity (kg/m3) 0.8600, Kinematic viscosity (mm2/sec) 2.8566, Acid value (mgKOH/g) 0.480, Cetane number 45.50, Cloud point (°C) 3.0, Flash point (°C) 120, Pour point (°C) -9.000, Heat of combustion (BTU/gal) 130,000. And for Iron (ii) oxide FeO as a catalyst: Specific gravity (kg/m3), 0.8907, Kinematic viscosity (mm2/sec) 2.9566, Acid value (mgKOH/g) 0.5012, Cetane number 48.00,  Cloud point (°C) 2.0, Flash point (°C) 110,  Pour point (°C) -11.000, Heat of combustion (BTU/gal), 128,000.

CHAPTER ONE

1.0       INTRODUCTION

Biodiesel also referred to as non-petroleum based fuel consists of short chain alkyl (methyl or ethyl) esters,  made by transesterification of vegetable or animal fat  (tallow), which can be used (blend conventional petrol diesel) in unmodified diesel engine vehicles. Goering RD, et al,. (2012).

According to Gerpen JV, Parawira W et al, biodiesel production is through the chemical reaction of an animal fat or vegetable oil with an alcohol for instance methanol which requires the presence of a catalyst (usually a base) like potassium or sodium hydroxide which in turn produces new chemical compound called methyl esters. Biodiesel could be prepared from varieties of  oil from vegetables like canola, corn, cotton seed oil, peanut, safflower, soybean, sun flower oil, palm oil,  olive oil, palm kernel oil and coconut oil.

The most universally used alcohol in the preparation of biodiesel is methanol as a result of the following  advantage it has, compared to other alcohol; it is cheap, it prevents the formation of soap, it does not  produce azeotrope and reactivity is high, hence it is less difficult to recover. Demirbas A., (2009). Alcohol such as ethanol, butyl and iso-propanol can also be used.

Biodiesel can be considered to be a promising alternative to petroleum diesel and has attracted keen attention from many researchers all over the world, (Anderson YM, Adam NM, 2009). The need to reduce global warming due to environmental pollution and the willingness of international community to curb greenhouse emission as stipulated in the Kyoto protocol in 1997 has encouraged the need to find more alternative to fossil fuels Matal SS, Beena KV, et al, (2011).The aim of this paper is production of  biodiesel using crude palm kernel oil (PKO).

Investigation of the influence of FeO, NaOH and NaOH/FeO catalyst on yield of biodiesel was carried out and will be shown as well as the characterization of the palm kernel oil and biodiesel produced.

Vegetable oils occur naturally in the seeds of many plants and can be extracted by crushing and pressing. Their energy content is typically around 36-39 GJ t-1  and is only a little less than that of fossil diesel fuel (about 42 GJ t-1), (GODFREY BOYLE).

Vegetable oils could be burned directly in diesel engines, as Raw Straight Vegetable Oils (SVO), where the only treatment is filtering, however, the use of SVO in burners or engines is difficult due to high viscosity, danger of polymerization, wax sedimentation, coking at fuel injectors, solidification at low temperatures, etc. Engine conversion or tuning is necessary if SVO is the fuel. They can also be blended with diesel fuel, but incomplete combustion could be a major problem, leading to carbon build-up in the cylinders. Due to these facts, chemical conversion of the vegetable oils into esters, a type of  biodiesel,  is preferred, (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biodiesel).

Biodiesel solves some SVO-related problems by having physical properties very similar to those of fossil diesel, however certain major problems remain, plus that the presence of methanol and alkali residues in biodiesel might also be a challenge for engines not adapted to the fuel, (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biodiesel).

1.1       PALM KERNEL OIL CULTIVATION

Palm kernel oil is very similar to coconut oil in fatty acid composition and properties. The two trees also look rather similar, both are called “palms” but they belong to different genera. Coconut palm is “Cocos nucifera”, while the oil palm, which gives both palm oil (PO) and PKO is “Elaeis guineensis”. This tree is generally believed to have originated in the jungle forests of East Africa and there is some evidence that palm oil was used in Egypt at the time of the Pharaohs, some 5000 years ago. Nowadays, however, its cultivation is confined mostly to South East Asia.

The variety cultivated in nearly all the world’s plantations is the hybrid “Tenera” which gives the highest yield of oil per hectare of any crop. The relative economic efficiency of the oil palm is easily seen from the following simple calculation – soyabeans in the USA give a yield of about 2.5 tonnes of beans per hectare (1 hectare = 2.47 acres), which translates into about 0.5 tonne of oil and 2 tonnes of meal. Taking the price of meal at about 40% of the price of the oil, the total income to the farmer is equivalent to 1.3 tonnes of oil. In Malaysia, oil palms yield an average of 3.75 tonnes of palm oil, plus 0.6 tonnes of palm kernel oil, plus 0.6 tonnes of palm kernel meal, with income equivalent to 4.5 tonnes of oil. Furthermore, the oil palm is capable of vastly greater yields. PORIM has found trees which give more than double the above yields and their palm oil has the iodine value and fluidity of current super-olein. PORIM is also researching tissue culture which, one day, could push yields to twice as much again.

The palm fruit looks like a plum. The outer fleshy mesocarp gives the palm oil, while the kernel (which is inside a hard shell) gives palm kernel oil. It is rather strange that the two oils from the same fruit are entirely different in fatty acid composition and properties. In palm oil, most of the fatty acids are C16 (i.e. have 16 carbon atoms) and higher, while in palm kernel oil, they are C14 and lower.

1.2       AIM OF THE STUDY

1. The aim of this research work is to produce biodiesel using two different solvent (FeO and NaOH )
2. To compare the statistical percentage yield of the two solvent.

1.3       OBJECTIVE OF STUDY

The objective of this research is to examine the performance of yield and purity of biodiesel and reaction time via single step batch transesterification process.

1.4       SCOPE OF STUDY

To study the effect of catalyst concentration on yield and purity of biodiesel using batch transesterification process.

1.5       PROBLEM STATEMENT

The problem was to determine the extent to which the sodium hydroxide and iron (ii) oxide as the catalyst and the effect of batch transesterification process on various parameters where PKO is used as a raw material in production of biodiesel.

1.5       SIGNIFICANCE OF STUDY

The rationale of this research is to identify the important variables and to propose a suitable approach in scaling up the production of biodiesel from PKO using batch transesterification process. With the important variables such as catalyst concentration, reaction time, reaction temperature and ratio of ethanol to oil used.

The high energy demand in the industrialized world as well as in the domestic sector, had caused pollution problems due to the widespread use of fossil fuels make it increasingly necessary to develop the renewable energy sources of smaller environmental impact than the fossil fuels such diesel fuels. The alternative fuel must be technically feasible, economically competitive, environmentally acceptable and readily available that is familiar to biodiesel properties. Biodiesel also biodegradable, non-toxic and has low emission profiles as compare to diesel fuel.

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PROXIMATE AND MINERAL ANALYSIS OF SELECTED BITTER VEGETABLES

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PROXIMATE AND MINERAL ANALYSIS OF SELECTED BITTER VEGETABLES

ABSTRACT

This research work is carried out to determine the proximate and minerals  content  in some bitter vegetables (gongronema latifoluim, hibiscus sabdarrifa ,and rhus thyphina) all  the statistical analysis for the proximate analysis results obtained was calculated in percentage and for the Minerals was represented using bar chat and evaluated using  one way of variance (ANOVA). In mineral analysis it shows that gongronema latifoluim has high concentration of Fe than other minerals present which are K, Ca,Ti, Mn, Ni, Cu,Zn,Se,Br, Rb. while rhus thyphina has the higher level of k and Fe than other minerals present which are Ca, Ti, Mn, Ni, Cu, Zn, Br, Rb. Also hibiscus sabdarrifa has higher level of K than other minerals present. hibiscus sabdarrifa has higher level of K than  the two bitter vegetables. for the proximate analysis hibiscus sabdarrifa is seen to have the highest moisture content at 5.66% also having the highest ash content at 4.40%, also having the highest crude fiber content at 28%, gongronema latifoluim, was seen to have the highest crude protein at 27.2%, rhus thyphina was seen to have the highest crude fat content 0.97%, hibiscus sabdarrifa was seen to have the highest carbohydrate content at 65.56%

CHAPTER ONE

1.0       INTRODUCTION

Vegetables are edible parts of leafs, stem and roots of plants which can be eaten raw or cooked (Hyson D, 2002), they play an important role in human nutrition been low in fats and carbohydrate but high in vitamins and dietary fibre. Bitter vegetables play an important role in human nutrition and health, particularly as sources of vitamin C, thiamine, niacin, pyridoxine, folic acid, minerals, other vital nutrients supplied by bitter vegetables include riboflavin, zinc, calcium, potassium and phosphorus. Some components of bitter vegetables are (phytochemicals) are strong antioxidants and modify the metabolic activation and detoxification/disposition of carcinogens and may even influence processes that may change the course of the tumor cell efforts begin early in life Prior R. L. et al., (2000). Research has shown that the consumption of bitter vegetables may be associated with a decreased incidence and mortality of a variety of chronic diseases which includes obesity. Bitter vegetable intake has been shown to have positive effects in terms of weight management and obesity prevention (Quebedeaux B. et al., 2006). There are various benefits gained by consuming a diet rich in bitter vegetables, but it is not clearly understood why a diet rich in bitter vegetables would prevent obesity or excessive weight gain, suggesting that further studies are needed to elucidate and confirm possible mechanisms involved in the prevention of obesity by bitter vegetable consumption It is a common knowledge in biological science that mammalian and plant cells are constantly exposed to a variety of oxidizing agents. These oxidizing agents may be present in air, food, and water, or they may be produced by metabolic activity within the cells, however, it is important to maintain a balance between oxidants and antioxidants to be able to sustain optimal physiological conditions. Overproduction of oxidants can cause an imbalance, leading to oxidative stress. Oxidative stress can cause oxidative damage to macromolecules such as lipids, proteins and DNA and consequently lead to increased risk for developing chronic diseases such as cancer and cardiovascular disease. In order to prevent or reduce the oxidative stress induced by free radicals, sufficient amounts of antioxidants need to be consumed and bitter vegetables are known to contain a variety of antioxidant compounds such as phenolics and carotenoids which may help protect cellular systems from oxidative damage and reduce the risk of developing chronic diseases (Crozier A. 2000).

1.2       AIM AND OBJECTIVES

The aim of the study is to determine the proximate and mineral content in selected vegetables which includes  gongronema latifoluim, habiscus sabdariffa, Rhus typhina.

1. To determine the proximate content of the leaves
2. To determine the mineral of three selected (bitter leaves)
3. Comparative analysis of the samples

1.3         SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

The significance of this study is based on the minerals content and proximate analysis of  three bitter vegetables and to investigate the nutritional value of each samples and their application to human health.

1.4       SCOPE AND LIMITATION OF THE STUDY

This research work is limited to bitter vegetables ( gongronema latifoluim, habiscus sabdariffa,rhus thyphina) sold in Nasarawa market,Nasarawa State

The parameters are proximate analysis with mineral analysis using (ED-XRF)

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THE IMPACT OF DEVELOPMENT CONTROL ON RESIDENTIAL PROPERTY DEVELOPMENT IN NASARAWA

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THE IMPACT OF DEVELOPMENT CONTROL ON RESIDENTIAL PROPERTY DEVELOPMENT IN NASARAWA

ABSTRACT

This project assesses the impact of development control on residential property in Nasarawa local government area with aim to identify possible problem and find absolute solution. In doing this primary data was collected through the administration of questionnaire to Nasarawa urban development board (NUDB) and some property developers in Nasarawa. 140 Questionnaire was administered which 120 was collected back. This work contains the population size, sample and sampling technique. The instrument used in analyzing the data was purposive and tabular form was also adopted. The analysis shows that there are problems which recommendation and conclusions were made to solve the identified problems.

CHAPTER ONE

1.0       INTRODUCTION

1.1       BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

Development control forms an integral part of the planning practice. It is the basic means by which the state intervenes to regulate the use and development of land in order to implement local and national planning policies. Most significantly it is the part of the planning process in which members of the public come into contact with local planning authorities.

Today, development control comes under considerable criticism about the nature of decisions taken, and the ways in which they are taken. One hears complaints that sluggishness discourages development; that its complexity is excessively costly; And that its nature stifles initiative. (Amos, 1980). Development control is not appreciated by the general public mainly because of the restrictions it imposes on the aims and aspiration of the developers.

Originally, the rationale for the introduction of state control on private development was to achieve objectives of safety and better health in order to create an improved environment for the benefit of the community. However, as the role of the state expanded and the extent of its intervention increased, the definition of the ‘environment’ subject to planning control has changed. From being wholly concerned with the physical form and content of development it now embraces the social and economic consequences of development. As a result, development control has been used to implement planning strategies for different purposes; for example to minimise the negative effect of urban growth, to check the menace of market forces and ensure social equity, as well as to support economic growth (Litchfield & Darin Drabkin, 1980).

Therefore, development control is a tool, sometimes used to achieve its original objectives of safety and better health; Sometimes to implement planning strategies; and in some cases to do both. Although it continues to regulate the use of land, while planning strategies have widened in scope, development control has proved incapable of meeting additional demands. Since development control is used to implement planning policies, which are normally reflected in planning legislation, physical development plans and other associated planning documents, the failure to achieve development planning objectives may be due to the pursuit of inappropriate policies, to the application of inflexible standards and regulations, or both, which is why Koenigsberger (1975), Rivkin (1978) and McAuslan (1985) comment that development control practices are inappropriate, ineffective and inequitable in their operation in most Third World cities.

They argue that developing countries stand to benefit little from the transplanting of regulations that have evolved in different social soils with differing political and economic climates. Another criticism is that planning agencies in developing countries lack the power and resources to perform efficient and effective development control.

Development control is seen as a mechanism to maintain standards. It is process laid down by legislation, which regulates the development of land and building. It is the professional activity carried out by town planners in order to ensure compliance with the approved master plan thereby ensuring orderliness.

In line with the above definition, development control actually regulates any building or rebuilding operations in, on and under the land. It also ensures an orderly growth of settlements by stipulating adequate standards for all aspects of land-use through the provision of adequate lighting, ventilation, open spaces and other socio-cultural facilities that make life worth living. The power to grant or refuse as well as attach conditions to permissions for development to take place gives the public agencies the big teeth.

Ogunsesan (2004) opined that development control is the “front line‟ of planning and the part, which affects the general public most. There is a direction in the exercise of development control on developers. The direction according to Ogunsesan (2004) is the objectives of development control, which include: the protection and enhancement of the built environment; the coordination of both public and private investments in land and property to ensure that land is efficiently used; and the control of pollution. In development control process, time is a very important factor. There are two types of time factors in the development control process as pointed out by Faludi (1973): “internal and external time lag”. The internal time lag as he explained is the time it takes to act upon information received, while the external time lag, he explains as the time it takes for the action to be effected.

Development control is carried out by planning authorities that have legal powers conferred on them to ensure that development is secured. The authorities according to Faludi (1973) are empowered to: plan, promote and secure the physical development and environmental improvement by economic; as financial developers they can initiate planning schemes and develop the area wholly or partly‟. Kimaryo (1992) is of the view that „though the planning authorities are empowered legally to carry out their duties, it may still be restricted. Its effectiveness reduced by lack of political backing and support from the top echelon of government functionaries‟.

Furthermore, development control is seen as a powerful implementation weapon in the planning armory. Positive encouragement is given to developers to compel them to willingly develop their land with due respect to the requirement of the planning authorities. Public enlightenment is usually embarked upon which tend to encourage the public to want some sort of control over physical development. Communication is a vital tool necessary for development control to succeed. An effective and efficient communication ensures „control development with people and not for people‟; for if people are carried along in development control process, the authority will be able to guide development with ease and achieve their set objectives of a well planned built-up area with good road network, building set-backs, ventilation, lighting and pollution free environment. On the other hand, if the members of the public are not informed, they may not accept the idea of control, with feelings that since they owned the land, they can as well carry out development the way they want and at their own time without due consideration.

1.2STATEMENT OF RESEARCH PROBLEM

Rural- urban migration has caused congestion in the urban areas and left the towns and cities sprawling endlessly into the countryside with dire consequences for the provision of essential urban infrastructure. That is, the rate of expansion of each of old and newly emerging town led to the emergence of uncoordinated land-uses, winding road network, traffic congestion, uncoordinated provision and distribution of socio-physical infrastructure, uncollected waste and the like, amongst others with great impact on the socio-economic well being of the inhabitants. All these are resultant effects of uncontrolled development in both rural and urban settlements in Nigeria.

The rapid growth of our settlements, particularly urban areas need to be controlled to prevent chaotic and haphazard physical growth and development, which certainly takes place in the absence of any development control measure. However, some of the rationales for effective development control are the achievement of balanced, coordinated and good development of the environment; it ensures structural soundness and the adequate provision of necessary utilities, services and facilities for the proposed buildings; protection and the development of the environment so that the activities of men do not have adverse effects on it. This uncontrolled development has led to the environmental situation as presently witnessed in some squatter settlements of Nasarawa and other big town and cities in Nigeria. It is against this background that this study seek to evaluate the impact of development control on residential property development in Nasarawa.

1.3    AIM AND OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

The aim of this project is to evaluate the impact of development control on residential property development in Nasarawa.

To achieve the aim above the following objectives were pursued

1. To examine the effectiveness of development control in Nasarawa
   1. To evaluate the impact of the development control on residential property
   1. To identify the possible problems militating the effective and efficient development control in the study area.

 1.4RESEARCH QUESTIONS

1. How effective is development control in Nasarawa?
   1. What are the functions of development control?
   1. What impact has development control made to residential property development in Nasarawa Town?
   1. What are the possible problems militating the effective and efficient development control in the study area?

1.5       SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

This project will help to overcome the challenges that are currently facing in development authority in Nasarawa by the time this project is completed as it will serve as an eye opener on relevance of development control towards effective and efficient development of urban and rural areas in Nigeria.

The result of this study will enlighten property developers and investors on the need to comply with development control authority as development control generally impact positively on residential property development.

Students and other researchers will find this research useful as it will serve as reference to the department of estate management and valuation.

1.6SCOPE AND LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY

There are different types of property development, this project mainly concern on the impact of development control on residential property development in Nasarawa, Nasarawa State.

The following are the limitations of the study

1. Lack of proper response from the developer’s point of view.
2. The financial aspect was a bit difficult.
3. There was no previous work available to reference with.

1.7     DEFINITION & OPERATIONAL OF TERMS

Development: used here means an event constituting a new stage in a changing situation i.e. process development or being developed Kimaryo (2002).

Development in terms of land, property or real estate, is a complex process of coordinating various activities to transform ideas and plans into physical realty. As a business process, it involves the financing, construction, renovation or refurbishment of buildings and land in order to make a profit (published by ministry of housing in 2012)

Residential: means involving living at the place where you are working, studying or being looked after Kimaryo (2006)

According to Long man dictionary, residential can be seen as relating to homes rather offices or businesses

Property: a thing or things belonging to someone or possessions collectively i.e. an attribute, quality or characteristics of something.

The Editors of Encyclopedia Britannica defined Propertyas an object of legal rights, which embraces possessions or wealth collectively, frequently with strong connotations of individual ownership.

1.8HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

Nasarawa, also spelled Nassarawa, town, Nassarawa state, central Nigeria. The town lies just north of a fork in the Okwa River, which is a tributary of the Benue River. Nasarawa was founded in about 1838 in the Afo (Afao) tribal territory by Umaru, a dissident official from the nearby town of Keffi, as the seat of the new emirate of Nassarawa. Umaru expanded his domain by conquering neighbouring territory and made Nassarawa a vassal state to Zaria (175 miles [282 km] north). One of his successors, Muhammadu (reigned 1878–1922), enlarged the emirate by various conquests and, in 1900, was one of the first emirs to pledge allegiance to Great Britain. In 1976 Nasarawa became part of Plateau state; in 1996, it became part of Nassarawa state.

Farming and mining (for tin and columbite) are the principal activities of the area’s predominantly Afo population. Nasarawa is a market centre for the yams, sorghum, millet, soybeans, shea nuts, and cotton grown in the surrounding area. The town is served by a secondary school and a hospital. It is located at the intersection of local roads that lead to Keffi and the Benue River ports of Loko and Umaisha. Pop. (2006) local government area, 189,835.

Nasarawa state was created 1st October 1996 by the general Abacha government regime, it is a state in north central Nigeria, Lafia is the state capital, the was created out of the following neighboring state of plateau, located in north-central region of Nigeria, it is bordered on the west by the federal capital territory, then north by Kaduna, then south by Benue and Kogi and also the east Plateau and Taraba states.

Nasarawa state has diverse range of ethnic group indigenous to the state.

According to 2006 census a little less than 2million populated people reside in the state.

The state has 13 local governments namely:Toto, Obi, NasarawaEggon, Nasarawa,  b Lafia,Kokona,Keffi,DomaKeana, Karu, Awe,Akwanga, Wamba.

And 29 languages spoken, Nasarawa is home to many tertiary institutions namely:

Federal UniversityLafia, Federal Polytechnic Nasarawa, Nasarawa State UniversityKeffi, State federal college of education.Nasarawa state polytechnic etc

Economic activities of the state are mainly Agriculture, cash crops such as yam, cassava, andegusi(melon). Production of mineral such as salt is also another major economic activity in the state; Nasarawa produces a large proportion of the salt and bauxite consumed in the country.

Geography issue:  Nasarawa state is bounded in the north Kaduna state, in the west by the proximity Abuja Federal Capital Territory in the south by Kogi and Benue states and in the east by Taraba and Plateau states.

A network of roads exist within the state linking all the rural areas and major town, the Nigeria Rail ways Corporation (NRC) operate train service from kuru, Gombe, and Maiduguri.

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DETERMINATION OF CONCENTRATION LEAD (Pb), CADMIUM (Cd) AND CHROMIUM (Cr) IN SOME LOCAL RICE AND RICE HUSK OBTAINED IN NASARAWA MARKET, NASARAWA STATE

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DETERMINATION OF CONCENTRATION LEAD (Pb), CADMIUM (Cd) AND CHROMIUM (Cr) IN SOME LOCAL RICE AND RICE HUSK OBTAINED IN NASARAWA MARKET, NASARAWA STATE

ABSTRACTS

Rice is an excellent staple crop which contains vitamins and minerals such as vitamins E & B and potassium needed for human growth and wellbeing. In recent times, majority of Nigerian consume a lot of rice as compared to other local staple. However, heavy metal contamination of rice and other crops is threatening the quality of these crops and the health of consumers.

Due to industrialization and other human activities, environmental pollution with chemicals is increasing and this has led to the contamination of agricultural produce. Heavy metal contamination has been associated with adverse effects such as damages to the nervous system, kidneys, liver, lungs and other vital organs in humans and animals. With dietary intake as one of the major routes of heavy metal exposure to human, there is the need to investigate the levels of these metals in our foods.

This study intended at determining the concentrations of three heavy metals (chromium, cadmium and lead) in rice sold on the Nasarawa market. Three samples of local rice grain and rice husk were collected from the markets in Nasarawa;. Samples were homogenized and digested for analysis using a microwave digester. The concentrations of the 3 elements (Cr, Cd &Pb) were analysed using Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometry. The method used was validated using a certified reference material.

Results indicated that, for chromium concentration in rice grain samples,obtained concentrations which ranged from 0.0708 to 0.4489mg/l with an average of 0.2159 mg/l. Concentration of chromium in rice husk ranged from 0.0.697 to 0.1569 mg/l with an average of 0.1102 mg/l. Cadmium concentration of rice grain  ranged from 0.0230 to 0.1153 mg/l with an average of 0.0728 mg/ l in rice grain. Cadmium in rice husk ranged from 0.0169  to 0.0688 mg/l with an average of 0.0415 mg/l in the samples. Lead concentration in rice grain ranged from 3.1124 to 1.9575 mg/l with an average of2.4785 mg/l. Concentration of lead in rice husk samples ranged from 0.1153 to 0.6588 mg/l with an average of0.4120 mg/l in rice husk.

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1       BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

Health is wealth and as such you are the product / function of what you eat; but the health hazard associated with heavy metals contamination in our world cannot be over emphasized.  The main threats to human health from heavy metals are associated with exposure to lead, Nickel, cadmium, mercury, chromium and Arsenic. The metals have been extensively studied and their effect on human health regularly reviewed by international bodies such as the world health organization (WHO 2010).

According to IPCS/WHO. 1995, many challenges with health have risen with some to no cure but management, and heavy metals known to be accumulated in plants adversely affect human health and these heavy metals get accumulated in part of the plants (oryza Sativa L.) via the metal transfer factors from the soil to the rice plant.

Heavy metals from natural and anthropogenic source accumulate in soil and plant has a consequences represent important environmental contamination problems. Never the less, food safety issues and adverse health risk makes this of the most serious environmental issues soils are considered to be an excellent media to monitor and access heavy metals pollution because anthropogenic heavy metals contaminated soil adversely affects the whole ecosystem. When this toxic heavy metals migrate into underground water or are taken up by the flora and fauna, may result in great threat to ecosystem due to translocation and bio accumulation (Naseri, et al 2009)

Heavy metals are potentially toxic to crop plants, animals, and human being when the contaminated soil are used for crop production and thus human health is directly affected through the intake of the crops grown in polluted soils, and there is a clear evidence that human renal dysfunctionis related with contamination of rice with cadmium in subsistence farms in Asia. Plant absorb heavy metals from the soil (Naseri et al 2009)and the surface 25cm zone of the soil is mostly affected by such pollution resulting from anthropogenic activities and these heavy metals are absorbed and accumulated in the soil layer probably due to relatively high organic matter. The plant part of interest for direct transfer of heavy metal to human body are the edible part such as the rice grain, which may consequently become a threat to human health. Nevertheless, heavy metals in the environment  consequently are of immense concern because of their persistence nature, bio accumulation and bio magnification characters  causing to plants, animals and human being (UNICEF 2008)

The use of polluted soil or water for crop cultivation mainly results in decrease of overall productivity and affects human health to and therefore there is a vital need to know and understand the mechanism involved such as the concentration and oxidation of heavy metals.

1.2.      STATEMENT OF THE RESEARCH PROBLEM

The research problem is to find out the concentration of heavy metal (Lead, chromium and Cadmium) contained in the rice grain and the rice husk that are consumed by human in Nasarawa, and to see how the production process can be increased or become thus reducing the risk of heavy metal contamination with the body. Also to look for a better way at which the rice can be processed.

1.3.      AIMS OF THE STUDY

• The study is aimed at determining the concentration of heavy metal in local rice and its husk.

1.4.      OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY

• To access the limit of potential contaminate in the plants.
• To know the level in degree of contamination of lead (Pb) chromium (Cr) and cadmium (Cd) in the plant (rice).

1.5.      SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

The effect of heavy metals can never be over emphasized according to Payus, (2014). Heavy metals toxicity can either be acute or chronic effect long term exposure of the body to heavy metal can progressively lead to muscular, physical and neurological/ degenerative progresses that are similar to disease such as parkisons disease, multiple sclerosis, muscular dystrophy, brain damage, kidney damage, nervous system and reproductive system and can also lead to cancers and even death. And as such, if they are substance in these modern age that pose such effect on health, thus carrying out research about them would be of paramount importance so as to create awareness to the consumer of such substance. More so many local farmers have gone into the business of rice farming and so creating heavy metals on plants consumption will be great help to humanity.

1.6.      SCOPE AND LIMITATION OF THE STUDY

The research work is to determine the concentration of the heavy metals in local rice and its husk produced in  Nasarawa main market, Nasarawa state and the heavy metals to be determined are lead (Pb) chromium (Cr) and cadmium (Cd).

1.7.      AREA OF THE STUDY

The investigation will cover the rice mill in Nasarawa main market, Nasarawa, Nasarawa state and the prepared for analysis in the Federal Polytechnic Nasarawa, then heavy metal determination in Kwali, F.C.T.

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PROXIMATE AND SELECTED MINERAL ANALYSIS OF CLOVES (Syzygium aromaticum) AND GINGERS (Zingiber officinale).

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PROXIMATE AND SELECTED MINERAL ANALYSIS OF CLOVES (Syzygium aromaticum) AND GINGERS (Zingiber officinale).

ABSTRACTS

Proximate and mineral compositions of two selected traditional spices (Zingiber officinale and Syzygium aromaticum) were evaluated in this study. The samples of ginger and clove were bought from a local market at Nasarawa main market in Nasarawa, Nasarawa State. The samples were grinded and sieved into a finer particle. The samples were analysed for the proximate composition and mineral contents. From the results, moisture, ash, crude protein, fat, fibre and carbohydrate content of ginger were 10.22, 11.03, 13.64, 2.54,  25.23 and 37.33% respectively; that of cloves were 11.02, 5.21, 27.41, 28.61, 8.02 and 19.70% respectively. More so, calcium, zinc, iron, and potassium were 6.43,720.83, 4.20, and 6.41mg/100g respectively in cloves, 16.22, 504.33, 2.73, and 1.94 mg/100g in ginger. Consequently, ginger and cloves possessed varying proportions of the proximate components as well as mineral elements. However, cloves possessed better moisture, crude protein, and crude fat, contents with a higher potassium, zinc, and iron mineral contents compared to clove examined while ginger had a better carbohydrate, crude fibre, ash, and calcium levels.

CHAPTER ONE

1.1       BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

Spices are vegetable substances used to season foods. Examples include clove, cinnamon, nutmeg, pepper, ginger, curry, etc. They are usually dried for use and have distinctive flavours and aromas (Burdock, 2009) .Spices come in various forms, whole or ground, or as extractives. The extractives are essential oils and oleoresins. These extractives are reformulated to produce secondary products such as essences, emulsions, liquid-soluble spices, dry soluble spices, encapsulated spices, heat resistant spices and fat based spices (Heath and Reineccius, 2002). The use to which a spice material is put as spice is dictated primarily by its content of essential oils oroleoresins (Hill et al, 2004). The word spice comes from the Old French word espice, which became epice, and which came from the Latin root spec, the noun referring to” appearance, sort, kind”: species has the same root. By 1000BCE, medical systems based upon herbs could be found in China, Korea, and India. Early uses were connected with magic, medicine, religion, tradition, and preservation (Burdock, 2009). In culinary concerns, spices give piquancy to tasteless food served in the home, cafés and restaurants. This use is based on the ability of spices to impart flavor and aroma to food. Spices are often referred to as food accessories or adjuncts because of their ability to stimulate appetite and increase the flow of gastric juice (Dziezak, 2005). Spices are used frequently in most homes and restaurant the world over. In Nigeria, the spices commonly used are ginger, clove and Ashanti pepper. Generally ginger, and cloves are used just to impart agreeable flavor and aroma to food. In some other circumstances, they are used for medicinal purposes. These spices are widely cultivated in Nigeria.

CLOVE

Clove, (Syzygium aromaticum); a tropical evergreen tree of the family Myrtaceae and its small reddish brown flower buds are used as a spice. Cloves were important in the earliest spice trade and are believed to be indigenous to the Moluccas, or Spice Islands, of Indonesia. Strong of aroma and hot and pungent in taste, cloves are used to flavor many foods, particularly meats and bakery products.

Physical Description and Uses

The clove tree is an evergreen that grows to about 8 to 12 metres (25 to 40 feet) in height. Its gland-dotted leaves are small, simple, and opposite. The trees are usually propagated from seeds that are planted in shaded areas. Flowering begins about the fifth year; a tree may annually yield up to 34kg (75pounds) of dried buds. The buds are hand-picked in late summer and again in winter and are then sun-dried, cloves varies in length from about13 to 19 mm (0.5 to 0.75 inch). The buds contain 14 to 20 percent essential oil, the principal component of which is the aromatic oil eugenol. Cloves are strongly pungent owing to eugenol, which is extracted by distillation to yield oil of cloves. This oil is used to prepare microscopic slides for viewing and is also a local an esthetic for toothaches. Eugenol is used in germicides, perfumes, and mouth washes, in the synthesis of vanillin, and as a sweetener or intensifier.

GINGER

Ginger is in the family Zingiberaceae, which also includes turmeric (Curcumalonga), cardamom (Elettariacardamomumi), and galangal. Ginger originated in Maritime South-East Asia and was likely domesticated first by the Austronesian peoples. It was transported with them throughout the Inda-Pacific during the Austronesian expansion (5,000BP), reaching as far as Hawaii. Ginger is one of the first spices to have been exported from Asia, arriving in Europe with the spice trade, and was used by ancient Greeks and Romans. (Thornas, 2006). The distantly related dicots in the genus Asarum are commonly called wild ginger because of their similar taste. In 2018, world production of ginger was 2.8million tonnes, led by India with 32% of the world total. (Thomas,2006)

NUTRITION

Nutrition is the process of obtaining the food necessary for health and growth. It includes the process of ingestion, digestion, absorption, metabolism, transport, storage and excretion of those nutrients. Food plays a very vital role in maintaining proper health and also helps in prevention and cure of diseases, Good nutritive food makes good health, but at the same time bad or unhealthy food gives rise to several diseases. Our cells, tissues and all organs work properly only with nutritious food which we eat. The six classes of nutrients include carbohydrate, fats and oil, protein, vitamins, water and minerals (Thomas,2006). Meat is one of the source of nutrients which in most. Communities has long occupied a special place in the diet for a variety of reasons including taste preference, tradition and availability with the nutritional aspect included more recently (Rcyowski, et al., 2007).

A healthy diet is one that provides adequate level of vitamins, minerals, proteins, carbohydrates and healthy facts from a variety of foods. An unhealthy diet, in contrast, is one that contains too much saturated and trans-fats, cholesterols, sodium, added sugars and processed ingredients or contains less few nutrients. Unhealthy diet results in a poor nutrient to calorie ratio, which can lead to weight gain and malnutrition as well as. Related health problems.

1.2       SIGNI FICANCE OF THE STUDY

Some scientists believe the components in cloves and ginger called allyl-sulfides and bio-flavonoids may be key to the research observations of generally lower incidence of cancer and-heart disease in people who consume large amounts of ginger and cloves, compared with

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those who eat less (Melino et al., 2011). A study from the National Cancer Institute found that eating 10 grams (approximately two tea spoons) or more of ginger, cloves or scallions a day was associated with a statistically significantly lower risk of prostate cancer for the participants in the study (Hsing et al., 2002).

A study conducted at Case Western Reserve University indicated that ginger may help reduce the occurrence rate of pre- cancerous tumors (polyps) in the large intestine. Many cancers are thought to because by damage to DNA of ten induced by environmental toxins (Iciek et al., 2009). A study conducted at the Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center in Seattle found that eating a tea spoon of fresh ginger and a half cup of cloves per day increases the levels of a key enzyme for removing toxins in the blood cells of healthy women. The authors of this study believed that men would require a higher dose on average for the same effect, because of their larger body size (Bianchini and Vainio, 2001).

Another study, conducted in Scotland, found that eating sautéed cloves increases the resistance of the blood cells to DNA damage. While a highly publicized clinical trial at Stanford University found that ginger did not lower cholesterol levels in healthy people with moderately elevated cholesterol. Previous studies have indicated that ginger is more Iikely to produce beneficial effects on cholesterol in women than in men, and in patients with diabetes or heart disease than in healthy individuals (Boyle et al., 2000).

In addition, while there is so much focus on the connection between cholesterol and heart disease, the benefits of ginger in preventing heart disease are probably due to factors other than changes in cholesterol (Milner, 2001). In particular, clinical experiments have shown that regular consumption of ginger decreased calcium deposits and the size  of arterial plaque in coronary arteries, prevented unhealthy blood clotting and improved the circulation of the subjects who were studied (Butt, 2009;).

1.3       AIM OF THE STUDY

The aim of this study is to compare the proximate and mineral composition of Cloves (Syzygium aromaticum) and Ginger (Zingiber oficinale).

1.4       OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY

The objectives which this research intends to achieve include the following;

1.         To determine the nutritional composition (crude lipid, crude protein, crude fibre,      moisture content, ash content, and total carbohydrate content) of ginger.

2.          TO determine the nutritional composition (crude lipid, crude protein, crude fibre,   moisture content, ash content, and total carbohydrate content) of clove..

3.          To determine the mineral composition of the samples

1.6       SCOPE AND LIMITATION OF T HE STUDY

This research work is restricted to ginger and clove sold in Nasarawa Main Market, Nasarawa State. The limitation of this research work is due to the following;

1.         Absence of some relevant equipment for analysis.

2.         Inadequate power supply during the experimental stage

3.         Cost of finance in carrying the experiment.

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