Human Resources Management - A means to attain industrial harmony

INTRODUCTION – Human Resources Management

Human resources management is a function in organizations designed to maximize employee performance in service of an employer’s strategic objectives. Human Resources Management is primarily concerned with the management of people within organizations, focusing on policies and on systems.

Firstly one of the industrial relation strategic functions of human resources management is managing and maintaining the employment relationship, which involves handling the pay – work bargain, dealing with employment, providing employees with a voice and communicating with employees.

The term employment relation encompasses the relationships between management and trade union, involving collective bargaining, collective agreements, dispute resolution and dealing with issues concerning the employment relationship and the working environment.

According to John is Kelly 2002, good industrial relations are approaches of the employers and employees towards each other with regard to achieve a mutual relationship give and take.

In other to improve productivity, human resources management have to create and maintain good and acceptable relations between employees, and were not calculated but the opinions are recorded and were used for result.

As an experience, industrial relation and labour management manager, I will use the following approaches so as to attain industrial harmony in Federal Polytechnic Nasarawa.
1) Unitary approach
2) Pluralist approach
3) System approach
4) Radical approach

1) Unitary Approach: This views the industrial enterprises as a team moving toward a common objectives. Unitary approach recognize every work organization as an integrated and harmonious, whole that exist for a common purpose. It emphasizes the co-dependency of employees and employers each worker identifies with the objective and mission of the organization.

Industrial relations is based on mutual cooperation between employees and management, a cohesive set of participants demand to be part of the same team. Collective bargaining and trade unions are perceived to be anti-social serving only to precipitate unnecessary and destructive industrial conflict in the federal polytechnic Nasarawa and also between parties in the institution.

2) The Pluralist Approach: This accepts that conflict is inherent in society and can be accommodated through various institutional arrangements, this recognizes, the existence of more than one ruling principle, and allows for different and divergent views from both management and trade unions, also achieved through negotiation, concession and compromise.

This approach to industrial relations reinforces, the value and legitimacy of collective bargaining between the management and trade unions as conflict resolving and rule making processes. This approach should be apply in federal polytechnic Nasarawa in other to attain good industrial relations and harmony, the approach is also found in businesses with a large number of employees such as a retail store chain or hotel chain

3) The System Approach: Organization are made up of numerous component sub systems working together harmoniously so that the large system succeed. It consider three key factors in the management labour relationship, environment, interaction and rules.

4) The Radical Approach: The radical approach, often called the maxian approach, it is based on the premise, that differences in economic power between computing social groups, can be changed by class conflict, the radical theory perceives industrial relations as a necessary result of workers seeking to protect themselves from powerful, profit – hungry corporations, that have no regard for the employees other than what they are legally obliged to do.

REFERENCES

1) Elements of human capital management (HCM) and Industrial Relations by Musa Salihu and Umar Suleiman Gunu.

2) Contemporary Management Principles and Practice by Suleiman Umar Gunu.

BUDGETING TECHNIQUES (SYSTEM)

BUDGETING TECHNIQUES (SYSTEM)

Public finance in Nigeria by Ugwu Monday J. of Okereke (2003) discussed about budgeting techniques or system. Budgeting control techniques are now a result of continuous comparison of actual results with operations. In addition, budget estimates need checking and revising when necessary. Successful budget control requires careful analysis of both actual result and budget estimates in the business organization, budgeting techniques represents the mechanism adopted in budget preparation. Among these techniques or system are:

ZERO BASE BUDGETING (ZBB): This is a techniques of budgets preparation where all activities of the business is prepared i.e. it assumes that references are not made to past or previous data. In zero budgeting everything starts newly, meaning that nothing of the past activity exists. This can be seen in a newly established industry.

PLANNING, PROGRAMMING: This is a method of budget preparation that lays emphasis on a particular program to be executed for the period of before its budget preparation.

TRADITIONAL: This is the most common method used in budgeting preparation, this techniques makes preference from past data or an activity, which believes that previous data exist, it becomes a basis for the next budgets preparation.

Performance: This method lays emphasizes on the performance of a particular periods before embarking on a new budget. For example, a firm budgeted for a profit of eight million naira with expenditure proposal of 4.5 million naira. If this is achieved, he can now decide to improve on the performance by budgeting for twelve (12) million naira. These techniques emphasize that budgets are prepared based on the performance of previous budgets.

sum – set Legislation: This is a system were by law are made to stop further expenditure on certain programmes that have outline their usefulness pending a reconsideration of the important for further implementation. It is similar to zero base budgets based on rotation and emphasize on cordial relations between the legislature and the executive.

BUDGETING AS AN INSTRUMENT OF PLANNING AND COORDINATING

A comprehensive budgets enhances planning at all levels and specifies the target to be achieved as well as resources committed to their execution. It is through planning that the best method of achieving set goals within given quantum of resources is realized. As an instrument of coordination, a well prepared budget enhances better coordination of all activities contained in the budgets. It is expected that they are made logical to enhance easy and successful implementation or execution.

BUDGET AND BUDGETARY CONTROL

INTRODUCTION – BUDGET

OMERGIC (1999:81) defines budgets as a plan of financial operation embodying and estimate in proposed revenue and expenditure as well as the proposed means of financing them for a given period usually one year.

In another development G.C. OBIAGBOSO (1996:25) is of the opinion that budgets can be conceptualized as a cost plan relating to a period of time.

Federal Ministry of Finance Publication (2004) defines budget as a presentation of government estimates of its revenue and expenditure for the fiscal year. It describes how the federal government will raise revenue and how this revenue will be directed towards rebuilding Nigeria’s economy, reducing poverty, creating employment and improving the standard of the generality of its citizens. A budge is a plan relating to a period of time expressed in quantitative terms.

However, it has been defined by the Chattered Institute of Management (CIMA) as a plan quantified in monetary terms prepared and approved prior to a define period of time usually showing planned income to be generated and / or expenditure to be incurred during that period and the capital to be employed to attain a given objectives.

The definition above reveals the following characteristics of budget:

1. A budget may be expressed in terms of quantity or money or both.
2. A budget is prepared in advance of the period during which it is to operate.
3. The purpose of budget is to implement the policies formulated by the management for attaining the given objectives.

           TYPES OF BUDGET

Encyclopedia Americana (2001:69) by Grolier incorporation states that, in most cases the quantities in a budget are expressed in money. A labour budget for example may be presented in hours. Other budgets may be presented in unit material such as pounds or yards. But because money is the common denominator in an organization transaction. Encyclopedia Americana (2001:69) list out the following as the type of budgets:

1. OPERATING BUDGETS: It involves any item in the regular operations of the firm that is, them that normally and regularly appears on the income statement, such as sales expenses, or manufacturing cost. Operating budget usually extend not more than 12 months into the future.
2. PROGRAMMED BUDGET: This in a way limited types of budget; They are limited to operating expenses that are subject to management’s discretion, such as research and development or advertising. When a programme budgets is used, the operating budget is limited to direct material, direct labour and manufacturing over-head items not easily affected by discretionary changes in policy by management.
3. CAPITAL BUDGET: This includes all proposal outlays for capital items for a period. Outlays for land, plant and equipment, furniture and fixtures are included. Outlays for small tools, repair and maintenance are excluded.
4. VARIABLE BUDGET: Is a budget in effect of a development to fix various levels of activities. Comparisons are made between the actual cost and revenue and the budgeted figures for the same level of activity. Only changes in values and efficiency are involved because the actual volume and budgeted volume are the same.
5. VARIABLE OR STATIC BUDGET: This type of budget is sometimes called forecast budget which are developed for only level of activity. In the comparison of budgeted and actual results. Volume changes are present as well as volume and price changes, and so analysis under fixed budget are clear as under variable budgets.
6. LONG TERM BUDGET OR ANNUAL BUDGET: generally and as a matter of routine principle, the federal government of Nigeria budgets annually, that is the budget is for one year. Some countries however, have adopted the policy of planned economy and to meet the needs of long term planning, the resorted to long term budgeting preparing the budget for three or more years.

Such budgets may, indeed be better described as long term planning rather than long term budgeting because what is provided for is financial planning over a period of years to finance the plan. The countries involved will spread the estimated plan expenditure over a number of years; the legislature will approve the plan along with its estimated expenditure.

1. CONTINUOUS OR ROLLING BUDGET: Are special types of short term budgets usually a year or fiscal year, they cover the current month and the following eleven months.
2. MASTER BUDGET: It co-ordinates and summarizes all sub-budgets of a firm. Sub-budgets cover particular segments or activities of a firm.
3. APPROPRIATION BUDGET: Usually show the maximum amounts that may be used for a particular project. In business, they are generally used to control capital expenditure.

FUNCTIONS OF BUDGET

Pene A. et al (1991:145 -146) considered four primary functions of budgeting which are as follows:

1. PLANNING: The primary purpose of a budget is to represent and describe the financial ramifications of plans for the future. The budgeting process requires individual to consider possible future course of actions and the resources needed to accomplish the various activities.
2. COMMUNICATION AND CO-ORDINATION: The budgeting process promotes communication and co-ordination among divisions or departments within a company. In order for the organization or company to function effectively management and other employees must understand the interaction among the departments and how the actions of one department affects another. Then management must communicate their plans to each other in order to co-ordinate the activities of the organization as a whole.
3. RESOURCES ALLOCATION: Organization operates with limited resources which therefore, requires some types of allocation. Budgeting aids resources allocation by ensuring that information is available to help managers determine which activities should be limited, resources of the organization. In addition, trough budgeting process, organization can analyze activities to determine if they add value to the company.
4. EVALUATION AND CONTROL: Finally, a budget serves as a useful benchmark against which to evaluate and control actual performance. The evaluation process consists of comparing actual performance results to the budge to determine what deviated from planned activities and whether to take corrective action. When actual and budgeted results do not match, the financial and operating activities of the organization may need to be revised.

          LIMITING FACTORS TO BUDGETING

OBIAGBOSO G.C. (1996:27) said limiting factors to budgeting are those factors whose influence must to an extent be assessed in order to ensure that budgets are reasonable and capable to ensure a favourable fulfillment. These factors include:

1. FINANCE: The financial position of the financial resources of each firms, organization or department must be of keen interest and must be taken into consideration when preparing the firms budget. This has to do with how the firm is going to generate its fund in order to achieve its objectives, here the question of where to get these fund come to mine, is it through subvention or through revenue so that, on the long run there wouldn’t be a problem in the implementation of the budget.
2. RAW MATERIALS: This is another limiting factor to budgeting; it is applicable to a large extent in a manufacturing organization where raw materials play a sensitive role in production. Here proper consideration should be given to availability of raw materials, the supplies and lead time.
3. PRODUCTION CAPACITY: The production capacity of each department must be taken into consideration such that the budgeted output from each department will be seen as a burden to such department i.e. the management should ensure that the production capacity is not exceeded so as to prevent possible breakdown of machines.
4. GRADE OF LABOUR: The execution of budget depends on it to a large extent on the work force of that organization. Therefore, the caliber of workers or employees must be such that can put in their best so as to achieve the set goals. But in a situation where lazy workers are employed, the budgeted output cannot be met and when this happen, the accomplishment of the budget is already in future.

          APPROACHES TO BUDGETING

According to OBIAGBOSO G. C. (1996:27) there are three approaches to budgeting namely:

1. MASTER BUDGET: This is a single summary statement which incorporates functional or supporting budgets. Functional or supporting budgets includes all income and expenditure for individual functions of a business such as sales budget, production budget, direct budget, etc. the master budget is usually, direct budget etc. The master budget is usually presented in form of budgeted operating statements, budgeted trading balance sheets. The master budget supported by the subsidiary budgets so presented to the top management. For example, when presented to the tope management for approval, if approval is given, the master budget becomes the financial summary of the agreed plan for the budget period being considered usually for the year ahead.
2. CASH BUDGET: This form a budget plans receipts and payment. It is prepared to show the expected receipts of cash and payment during the forth coming financial year. Receipt of cahs may be in form of cash sales, payment to debtors, the sales of fixed assets, the issues of new shares of stock. The main function of cash budget is to show the budget cash balance at various points in time throughout the budgeted period. It shows the effect of budget activities like selling, buying, paying wages, investing in capital equipment etc. they form the cash flow of an organization or firm.
3. CAPITAL BUDGET: This plans the capital structure and liquidity of an enterprise for a long period of time. It is concerned with liabilities, fixed and current budgeted working capital, liabilities, fixed and current budgeted working capital, budgeted fixed asset, budgeted equity and loan capital etc capital budget quit often though not always related to a period of time excess of one year.

          BUDGETING TECHNIQUES (SYSTEM)

Public finance in Nigeria by Ugwu Monday J. of Okereke (2003) discussed about budgeting techniques or system. Budgeting control techniques are now a result of continuous comparison of actual results with operations. In addition, budget estimates need checking and revising when necessary. Successful budget control requires careful analysis of both actual result and budget estimates in the business organization, budgeting techniques represents the mechanism adopted in budget preparation. Among these techniques or system are:

1. ZERO BASE BUDGETING (ZBB): This is a techniques of budgets preparation where all activities of the business is prepared i.e. it assumes that references are not made to past or previous data. In zero budgeting everything starts newly, meaning that nothing of the past activity exists. This can be seen in a newly established industry.
2. PLANNING, PROGRAMMING BUDGETING: This is a method of budget preparation that lays emphasis on a particular program to be executed for the period of before its budget preparation.
3. TRADITIONAL BUDGETING: This is the most common method used in budgeting preparation, this techniques makes preference from past data or an activity, which believes that previous data exist, it becomes a basis for the next budgets preparation.
4. performance budgeting: This method lays emphasizes on the performance of a particular periods before embarking on a new budget. For example, a firm budgeted for a profit of eight million naira with expenditure proposal of 4.5 million naira. If this is achieved, he can now decide to improve on the performance by budgeting for twelve (12) million naira. These techniques emphasize that budgets are prepared based on the performance of previous budgets.
5. sum – set Legislation: This is a system were by law are made to stop further expenditure on certain programmes that have outline their usefulness pending a reconsideration of the important for further implementation. It is similar to zero base budgets based on rotation and emphasize on cordial relations between the legislature and the executive.

          BUDGETING AS AN INSTRUMENT OF PLANNING AND COORDINATING

A comprehensive budgets enhances planning at all levels and specifies the target to be achieved as well as resources committed to their execution. It is through planning that the best method of achieving set goals within given quantum of resources is realized. As an instrument of coordination, a well prepared budget enhances better coordination of all activities contained in the budgets. It is expected that they are made logical to enhance easy and successful implementation or execution.

          BUDGETARY CONTROL PROCESS

DAVE N. and ROB D. (1993:420-428) These two people looked at budgetary control as techniques of looking into an organization’s future in order to anticipate what is going to happen and the n trying to make it happen. It is considered to be a system of responsibility accounting because it puts an onus upon managers to reform in a way that has been outlined for items, and ts success will depend upon the quality of information provided. In addition budgeting control involves the establishment of quantitative and financial statement showing the effect of following a given policy objectives during a specified period and then comparing the actual results with the previous estimate. As an instrument of control a comprehensive budget makes for easy and effective control of resources made for execution of any project. It is an avenue by which a variable quantity is made to conform to a prescribed norm or value. Budgets account are usually maintained by the treasury department of government in accordance with the revenue and expenditure that have been voted. These accounts are audited towards the end of the year and the audit report made available to the legislature and the public. The audit report highlights mismanagement of resources or misappropriation as well as punishment for offenders which limit a non repeat of past mistakes. Budgets as an instrument of control specifies government expected income and expenditure over a given period of time and government cannot add above, what it has budgeted for in the budgets. For effective budgeting control system, the following process should be noted:

1. ESTABLISHMENT OF OBJECTIVES: Overall and dimensional objectives must be established on the basis in which budgets are prepared.
2. BUDGET CENTERS: The budget centres are the divisions, departments, sections, or units within an organization. The centres are to use the budget manual or guidelines given to them by the budget committee to prepare their budgets.
3. BUDGETS COORDINATION: The estimates made by the various budget centres on cost, various project and programmes and the revenue to be generated are to be complied by a responsible officer (a budge officer) are presented before a budget committee for consideration. The budget holders and chained by a high ranking officer. The committee is to resolve differences and submit final comprehensive budgets for approval.
4. BUDGET APPROVAL: After the committee’s deliberations, adjustments and notifications on the compiled budget, approval is to be brought from highest ruling body in the organization. Budgets are summarized into a master budget consisting of a cash flow statement and a budgeted balance sheet.
5. BUDGET IMPLEMENTATION: The approval budgets is implemented in order to achieve the aims and objectives of the organization.
6. MEASUREMENT OF ACTUAL PERFORMANCE: Budgets implementation is subject to monitoring and supervision to makes sure that things are going according to plan. At the end of the budgets period, actual result performance is to be measured for comparison against initial plan. Where there are variances, it should be investigated to ascertain the causes before reacting to conclusion on whether they are adverse or favourable.
7. FEEDBACK ACTION: After taking a decision on favourable nature of a budgets variance, appropriate actions (in form of reward or punishment of different dimensions) are to be taken on the feedback for future planning and control.

ADVANTAGES OF BUDGETARY CONTROL

OmorgeGie (1999) points out the following as the advantages of budgetary control:

1. Budgetary control focuses attention upon the organizational structure and necessitates the assignment of responsibility.
2. It emphasizes the need for early planning of future policy.

iii.              Efficiency or inefficiency is spotlighted in periodic reports.

1. All the management members in all management level hierarchies are made to participate in the fixing of targets.
2. As a motivating factor the executive will strive to achieve budgets target which has been set with his full cooperations, his success or otherwise in the organization solely depends on his achievement to a great extent.
3. It provides a yard stick against which actual results can be compared.

vii.            It shows managements where actions needed to remedy the situation.

viii.    It aims at maximization of profits through careful planning and control.

1. It compels managers to think ahead to anticipate and prepare changing conditions.
2. IT assists in delegation of authority and assignment of responsibility.

2.9            CONSTRAINTS TO BUDGETING CONTROL

There are so many contributory factors to the failure of budgetary system, but my reason will focus on some few, which are considered to be the principal weakness of budgeting control;

1. LACK OF FLEXIBILITY: Some budgets are prepared without adequate flexibility to caution unexpected situations which may arise during the operations of the budgets, because they are fixed and tight, they become an end to themselves rather a means to an end.
2. RESISTANCE TO CONTROL CONTRO: Many managers regard budgetary control as unnecessary and an indirect way of curtailing their authority and as a witch hunting exercise. They adopt a protective stance on their budget center and resist anything which help to bring it into harmony with other center.

iii.  Budgets are developed around existing organizational structure which may be inappropriate for current condition.

1. Badly budgetary system with under pressure or lack of regard to the behavioural factors may cause antagonism and lower moral.
2. Variances are just as frequent due to changing circumstances and forecasting / management performance.

   

  REQUISITE FOR A SUCCESSFUL BUDGETING CONTROL

For every budgetary control to be successful, there are some requisite which must be adhered strictly. Among these requisite are the following:

1. SUPPORT OF TOP MANAGEMENT: If the budgets system is to be successful, it must be fully supported by every member of management and the impetus and direction must come from the top management. No control system can be effective unless the organization is convinced that the top management considers the system be committed to the budget idea as well as the principles, policies, and philosophy underlying the system.
2. BUDGET FIGURES SHOULD BE REALISTIC AND REPRESENT REASONABLY ATTAINABLE GOALS: The responsible executives should agree that the budgets are reasonable.
3. COST OF SYSTEM: The budget system should not cost more than it worth, since it is practicable to be calculating exactly what budget system is worth, it only implies a caution against adding expenses refinements unless their value clearly justifies them.
4. There must be proper co-ordinating by the budget officer usually the accountant.
5. CLEARLY DEFINED ORGANIZATION: In order to derive maximum benefits from the budget system well defined responsibility centers should be build up within the organization. The controllable costs for each responsibility centers should be separately shown.
6. PARTICIPATION BY RESPONSIBLE EXECUTIVES: Those entrusted with the performance of the budgets should participate in the process of setting the budget figures, this will ensure proper implementation of budget programmes.

    NATIONAL BUDGET PREPARATION

The Nigerian financial years runs from 1^st January and ends on 31^st December, of the same year. Then executive’s preparation of the budget for a new year commences same months to the end of the present financial year. The new budget proposal is expected to be sent to the national assembly for deliberation, during the civilian regime, the provisional ruling council and national council of sate deliberate upon the national budget proposal. However, proposal is expected to be completed before the commencement of the new fiscal year. The director of budget prepares the national budget request, each federal government ministry or department to submit its budgets proposals for the new fiscal year. The budget office then examines each ministries budget proposal to see that, it is in conformity with the presidents planned programme, after the compilation of the various ministries, budget proposals, the president studies it putting into consideration the prevailing economic condition and the revenue projections presented to him by his adviser on economic matters, the central bank, the ministry of finance etc. however, the various ministries will be called upon to defend their proposals as listed out in the budget before final acceptance. In these circumstances, the president has examined the revenue and evaluates them in consonance with the stabilization policy of the government. The prepared budget by the executives is then sent to the National Assembly for consideration and approval. The two houses of the National Assembly could give independent consideration on the proposed items of government expenditure in the budgets. The national assembly may decide to include more items in the appropriation bill or increase the expenditure vote of a particular item, once the appropriation bill is passed as approval, it is sent back to the president for his assent, he has the option to sign the appropriation bill, but once signed he can then present the budgets to the nation. In presenting the budgets, the president first states the major policy outlines of the government and summarizes the major points contained therein. Secondly, he gives detailed estimation or the government and finally give a careful analysis of selected aspects of the budgets.

REFERENCES

Adams, R.A. (2001): Public sector Accounting and Financial Corporate.

Anisworth, P. (1997): Introduction to Accounting, Integrated Approach, Publishing by Mc Grew Hill New York.

Clifford, F.N Cantilor A. (1999). Local Government Budgeting (A Management Approach, United Kingdom).

Dale, E. Management Theory and Practice Johannesburg, (1997, 175) Mc Crew Press.

Dr. Ngozi Konjo – Iweala (2010): Ministry of Finance Published by the Federal Ministry of Finance.

Encyclopedia Americana. (2001): by Grollier Incorporation.

Hilton (1997): Budgeting Control Plan.

Obiagboso C.C. (1996): Public Financial Management (An introductory Approach) Allanza Book and Publications. Minna.

Richard, P.S. (1999): Budgetary control London Felix Hilton Institute.

Wixon, R.P. (1998): Budgetary Control London.

Cost and Management Accounting Fundamentals (2012) by Aliyu Ahmed Tanko and Nafiu Usman Enesi.

Entrepreneurship for Sustainable Economic in Nigeria

ENTREPRENEURSHIP

Entrepreneurship is the process of designing, launching, and running a new business, i.e. a startup company offering a product, process or service. It has been defined as the “…capacity and willingness to develop, organize, and manage a business venture along with any of its risks in order to make a profit

The importance of entrepreneurship as a realistic mechanism for sustainable economic growth in Nigeria considering the experiences of developed nations like the United States and vibrant economies like China and India.

Entrepreneurship has been instrumental in economic growth, balanced regional development and job creation in most dynamic economies, where technology is changing at a faster rate and the product lifetime cycle is shrinking.

The right business environment for entrepreneurship is lacking in Nigeria on account of the challenges of frequent power outages, bad roads, multiple taxes extortion of money from SMEs by government officials, lack of genuine support service for SMEs and expensive transportation/telecommunications costs have all combined to inhibit entrepreneurship and economic growth. The paper therefore concludes that government should focus on capacity building, improving infrastructure, judicious utilisation of the oil wealth and enabling environment thereby leading to sustainable economic growth.

Entrepreneurship in Nigeria started when people in the villages and farming communities produced more products than they needed, as such; they had to exchange these surpluses with those who needed them within their immediate and neighbouring communities. The exchange of goods for goods or services was based on trade by barter initially, until commodity money was developed and used.

Exchange encouraged specialisation among producers, and the communities came to realize that they can concentrate on the areas of production they are best fitted.

Consequent on the above, the culture of entrepreneurship started in Nigeria (Nicks, 2008; Raimi and Towobola, 2011).

The socio-economic impact of entrepreneurship on the sustainable economic growth of the Nigerian economy is difficult to accurately measure or estimate, but it is believed to be highly dynamic and significant (Chu, Kara, Benzing, 2010).

However, a study estimated that between 45 and 60 percent of the urban labour force work for small private enterprises or what is otherwise called small businesses (Chu, Kara, Benzing, 2010 quoting Nwaka, 2005). Another study suggests that entrepreneurship has been beneficial because the Nigerian private sector comprising of small and medium enterprises provides diverse employment opportunities for 50 percent of the country’s population and 50 percent of the its industrial output (Ariyo (2005).

On account of encouraging entrepreneurial initiatives, the country has experienced exponential growth in the number of private firms. However, majority of these businesses are very small when their operations are measured in terms of capital, employment and revenues (Attahir and Minet, 2000).

Added to the above is difficulty confronted by small businesses in accessing bank credits, but the most serious and damaging problem threatening the state of entrepreneurship in Nigeria is a lack of government interest and support for micro, small enterprises (Ariyo, 2005; Chu et al., 2008).

Besides, entrepreneurship and small and medium enterprises development is hampered by plethora of challenges like bad roads, bribes by government officials, multiple taxes, epileptic power supply and rising overhead costs on transportation and communication. All these challenges and similar others have attracted global attention (Business Environment and Enterprise Performance Surveys, 2007).

More importantly, economic growth has eluded Nigeria on account poor utilisation of its numerous oil wealth for communal benefits, as current socio-economic indicators suggest that the nation’s mineral wealth has become worthless and a source of misery (Alan, 2007).

Conceptualization: Entrepreneurship and Economic Growth

Literature that explores entrepreneurship and economic growth in Nigeria is limited. The next option is to rely on materials from developed and developing countries for a deep insight into the impact of entrepreneurship on sustainable economic growth and development. Entrepreneurship is the creation and management of a new organization designed to pursue a unique, innovative opportunity and achieve rapid, profitable growth (Shane and Venkataraman, 2000). Kanothi (2009) quoting Binks and Vale (1990) defines entrepreneurship as “an unrehearsed combination of economic resources instigated by the uncertain prospect of temporary monopoly profit.. Entrepreneurship also entails the act of risk-taking, innovation, arbitrage and co-ordination of factors of production in the creation of new products or services for new and existing users in human society (Acs and Storey 2004, Minniti and Lévesque 2008, Naudé 2007, Kanothi, 2009).

The deliverable of entrepreneurship is making or doing things differently; making or providing innovative products or services; or organising how the products are made or supplied.

Economic growth on the other hand is the increase in the value of the goods and services produced by an economy. It is conventionally measured as the percent rate of increase in real gross domestic product, or GDP (Jones, 2002). Growth is usually calculated in real terms, i.e. inflation – adjusted terms, in order to net out the effect of inflation on the price of the goods and services produced. In economics “economic growth” or “economic growth theory” typically refers to growth of potential output, i.e., production at “full employment,” which is caused by growth in aggregate demand or observed output (Erbee and Hagemann, 2002).

The link between entrepreneurship as a catalyst of sustainable economic growth has been over flogged in the literature. Economics experts and various studies conducted across the globe envisage India and China to rule the world in the 21st century on account of their entrepreneurship and small business promotion feats.

For over a century, the United States has been the largest economy in the world but major developments have taken place in the world economy since then, leading to the shift of focus from the US and the rich countries of Europe to the two Asian giants – India and China (Economy Watch, 2007).

The United States Of America (USA) is the most technologically powerful economy of the world (Phoenix, 2006). The economy of the United States is the world’s largest national economy. Its nominal GDP was estimated to be $14.3 trillion in 2009, approximately a quarter of nominal global GDP. Its GDP at purchasing power parity was also the largest in the world, approximately a fifth of global GDP at purchasing power parity. The U.S. economy also maintains a very high level of output per capita. In 2009, it was estimated to have a per capita GDP (PPP) of $46,381, the 6th highest in the world (Wikipedia, 2010).

During the days of the British Empire, the UK economy was the largest in the world and the first to industrialise (ushering in the Industrial Revolution).

Although it has declined in significance, but the UK is still the sixth largest economy in the world by purchasing power parity. GDP growth was 1.1 per cent in 2008 but it is expected to contract in coming years, with GDP growth forecasts of -3.2 per cent in 2009 and – 1.1 per cent in 2010. The UK has a population of 61m and a GDP per capita is US$37.4k, which makes it the 30th richest country in the world, above the European Union average of US$33.8k (Economy Watch, 2010).

The smaller public sector is dominated by about 200 large state enterprises concentrated mostly in utilities, heavy industries and energy resources (China Daily, 2006).

Economic Growth In Nigeria

The Nigerian economy is one of the most developed economies in Africa. According to the UN classification, Nigeria is a middle-income nation with developed financial, communication and transport sectors. It has the second largest stock exchange in the continent. The petroleum industry is central to the Nigerian economic profile. It is the 12th largest producer of petroleum products in the world.

The industry accounts for almost 80% of the GDP share and above 90% of the total exports. Outside the petroleum sector, the Nigerian economy is highly amorphous and lacks basic infrastructure. Several failed efforts have been made after 1990 to develop other industrial sectors (Economy Watch, 2010).

Nigeria has great potentials for economic growth and development, given her vast natural resources in agricultural lands and minerals, as well as abundant manpower. In the last two decades, economic growth rate has been very low and in many years less than the population growth rate.

The general macroeconomic outcome has been poor, resulting to high poverty level (Wikipedia, 2010).

GDP per capita of Nigeria expanded 132% in the Sixties reaching a peak growth of 283% in the Seventies. But this proved unsustainable and it consequently shrank by 66% in the Eighties. In the Nineties, diversification initiatives finally took effect and decadal growth was restored to 10%. Due to inflation, per capita GDP today remains lower than in 1960 when Nigeria declared independence.

The low growth rate deals with downsizing of the industrial sector in Nigeria. One factor that impacted negatively on growth was high lending interest rates which promoted savings, but discouraged the flow of credit and investments to the real sector. Another economic phenomenon that affected growth was large budget deficits that were financed by the banking sector.

CONCLUSION / RECOMMENDATIONS

Economic growth is the key to higher living standards. According to Onipede (2003), economic theory suggests several key institutions and policy factors that are important for the achievement of maximum economic growth. It is therefore recommended that the following institutions and policies be enhanced in order to make way for sustainable economic and entrepreneurship development in Nigeria:

1. There is the need for security of property right and political stability in the country. A volatile political, religious and ethnic climate undermines security of property rights.
2. Stable money and prices are essential for development. A stable monetary environment provides the foundation for the efficient operation of a market economy. In contrast, monetary and price instability generate uncertainty and undermine the security of contracts.
3. The market and enabling environment must be competitive. In a competition, producers must woo consumers away from other suppliers. To do so, they must offer quality and cheaper alternatives. Sellers who cannot provide quality products at competitive prices have no place in a competitive market economy and thus would be driven from the market (Gwartney et al., 1999).
4. There must be in place policy and regulations that guarantee freedom of trade, within or without. Trade is very important for growth and prosperity. When the citizens are allowed unfettered right albeit within the permissible confines of the law to buy from suppliers offering the best deal and sell to purchasers willing to pay the most attractive prices, this way, they would be able to concentrate on the things they do well, while trading for those they do poorly (Gwartney et al., 1999).. Theoretically Nigeria is an open economy, which is on the face value; however, the opposite is the reality as there are many legal barriers in place, which make free trade next to impossible. These barriers should, as a matter of utmost importance be reviewed and where possible, expunged totally (Onipede, 2003).
5. Information communication technology (ICT) must be optimally utilised. ICT is a term that encompasses all forms of technology used to create, store, exchange and use information in its various forms (Business Data, Voice, Conversation, Still images, Motion Pictures, Multimedia presentations and other forms, including those not yet conceived). It is the technology that is driving–„information revolution.. It is an enabler as e- Business / e-Commerce and e- Service
6. Right-sizing of government: Government can meaningfully enhance economic growth by providing an infrastructure for the smooth operation of markets. A legal system that provides price stability is the central elements in this area (Gwartney et al., 1999). However, a government that grows too large as the case is in Nigeria, retards economic growth in a number of ways. First, as government grows, relative to the market sector, the returns to government activities diminish. The larger the government, the greater is its involvement in activities it does poorly. Second, more government means higher taxes, as the government fails to provide basic essential infrastructures for a better standard of living of its citizens. However, as taxes take more earnings from citizens, the incentive to invest declines.

Development of entrepreneurial skills married with excellent knowledge of information and communication technology (ICT) as additional key to technological and entrepreneurial development is important.

Nigeria’s vision of achieving sustainable economic growth and social development will remain unrealized if the nation’s infrastructural needs are not addressed. The provision of infrastructure such as power, transport and water is vital. Without adequate, cheap, constant and reliable electric power supply, no technological development will be successively achieved.

New innovation is lacking in Nigeria, most entrepreneurs prefer to import goods and package for sales because of high cost of production. In order to reverse this trend, it is pertinent that government gives priority to capacity building for technological innovation, good infrastructure and provide environment conducive for business that will lead to sustainable economic growth.

Additionally, since entrepreneurs are vital to economic growth, legislators and other leaders who develop economic policies should strive to encourage the innovation and risk taking of entrepreneurs. Enforcing property rights through contract, patent and copyright laws; encouraging competition through free trade, deregulation and antitrust legislation and promoting a healthy economic climate.

Any country that lacks capacity for production of goods will become a consuming nation instead of an industrial nation.

Finally, the Nigerian government needs to shift from over-dependence on oil and place more attention on the development of small & medium sized enterprises for sustainable economic growth in Nigeria. Economic prosperity in Nigeria, as in the rest of the world, depends on strong and empowered private sector to lead MSEs to a higher level of growth which would significantly contribute to the country’s economic well-being.

REFERENCES

Abouzeedan, Adli and Leijon, Svante (2007). Critical review of the usage of narrative-textual case studies in social sciences and the connect to traditional research methods. Paper presented at the 10th

Uddevalla Symposium, 14 -16 June, Uddevalla, Sweden. Research Report, University West.

Acs, Z.J. and D.J. Storey (2004) ‘Introduction: Entrepreneurship and Economic Development’, Regional Studies 38(8): 871-877.

African Statistical Yearbook 2010 by African Development Bank

Alan, Beattie (2010). False Economy – A surprising economic history of the world. Penguin Books’. ISBN: 978

ATTERBERG LIMITS

ATTERBERG LIMITS

The Atterberg limits are a basic measure of the critical water contents of a fine-grained soil, such as its shrinkage limit, plastic limit, and liquid limit. As a dry, clayey soil takes on increasing amounts of water, it undergoes dramatic and distinct changes in behavior and consistency. Depending on the water content of the soil, it may appear in four states: solid, semi-solid, plastic and liquid. In each state, the consistency and behavior of a soil is different and consequently so are its engineering properties. Thus, the boundary between each state can be defined based on a change in the soil’s behavior. The Atterberg limits can be used to distinguish between silt and clay, and it can distinguish between different types of silts and clays.

PURPOSE
This lab test is performed to determine the plastic and liquid limits of a fine-grained soil. The liquid limits (LL) is arbitrarily defined as the water content in percent, at which a part of soil in a standard cup and cut by a groove of standard dimensions will flow together at the base of the groove for a distance of 13mm when subjected to 25 shocks from the cup being dropped 10mm in a standard liquid limit apparatus operated at a rate of two shock per second. The plastic limit (PL) is the water content, in percent at which a soil can no longer be deformed by rolling into 3.2mm diameter threads without crumbling.

STANDARD REFERENCE
ASTM D4318- standard test method for liquid limit, plastic limit and plasticity index of soils.

SIGNIFICANCE
The Swedish soil scientist Albert Atterberg originally defined seven ‘Limits of consistency’ to classify fine-grained soils, but in current engineering practice only two of the limits, the liquid and plastic limits are commonly used. (A third limit, called the shrinkage limit is used occasionally). The Atterberg limits are based on the moisture content of the soil.

The plastic limit is the moisture content that defines where the soil changes from a semi-solid to a plastic (flexible) state. The liquid limit is the moisture content that defines where the soil changes from a plastic to a viscous fluid state. The shrinkage limit is the moisture content that defines where the soil volume will not reduce further if the moisture content is reduced.

The original liquid limit test of Atterberg involved mixing a part of clay in a round-bottom porcelain bowl of 10-12cm diameter. A groove was cut through the pat of clay with a spatula and bowl then struck many times against the palm of one hand.

Casagrande subsequently standardized the apparatus and the procedures to make the measurement more repeatable. Soil is placed into the metal cup portion of the device and a groove is made down its centre with a standardized tool of 13.5mm (0.53in) width. The cup is repeatedly dropped 10mm onto a hard rubber base at a rate of 120 blows per minute during which the groove closes up gradually as a result of the impact. The number of blows for the groove to close is recorded. The moisture content at which it takes 25 drops of the cup to cause the groove to close over a distance of 13.5mm (0.53in) is defined as the Liquid Limit. The test is normally run at several moisture content which requires 25blows to close the groove is interpolated from the test results. The liquid limit test is defined by ASTM standard test method D4318. The test method also allow running the test at one moisture content where 20 to 30 blows are required to close the groove. Then a correction factor is applied to obtain the liquid from the moisture content.

The materials needed to do a liquid limit test are as follows;
• Casagrande cup (liquid limit device)
• Grooving tool
• Soil pat before test
• Soil pat after test

IMPORTANCE OF LIQUID LIMIT TEST
The importance of the liquid limit test is to classify soils. Different soils have varying liquid limits. Also, one must use the plastic limit to determine the plasticity index.

DERIVED LIMITS
The values of these limits are used in a number of ways. There is also a close relationship between the limits and properties of a soil such as compressibility, permeability and strength. This is thought to be very useful because as limit determination is relatively simple, it is more difficult to determine these other properties. Thus the Atterberg limits are not only used to identify the soils classification, but it allows for the use of empirical correlations for some other engineering properties.

PLASTICITY INDEX
Plasticity index is a measure of the plasticity of the soil. The plasticity index is the size of the range of water content where the soil exhibits plastic properties. The plasticity index is the difference between the liquid limit and the plastic limit (PI = LL – PL). Soils with high plasticity index tend to be clay, those with a lower plasticity index tend to be silt and those with a plasticity index of 0 (non-plastic) tend to have little or no silt or clay.

 

PLASTICITY INDEX AND THEIR MEANINGS
• 0 – 3 = Non-plastic
• 3 – 15 = Slightly plastic
• 15- 30 = Medium plastic
• > 30 = highly plastic.

LIQUIDITY INDEX
The liquidity index (L.I) is used for scaling the natural water content of a soil sample to the limits. It can be calculated as a ratio of difference between natural water content to plastic limit: L.I = (W – P.L)/ (L.L – P.L). Where W is the natural water content.

 

 

APPARATUS

1. Sand cone apparatus which consist of a one gallon plastic bottle with a metal cone attached to it.
2. Balance sensitive to 1 gram.

• One gallon plastic can with cap.

 

1. Tools for excavating a hole in the ground like chisel, hammer etc.
2. Metal tray with a hole in the centre
3. Plastic air tight bag for carrying wet excavated soil from field to the lab.

• Scale (weight balance).

 

PR0CEDURES

The following procedures were carried out;

1. Go to the field were the soil’s unit weight is to be measured, place the metal tray and fasten the four (4) screws. (See Fig A. below).
2. Dig up to 10 to 15 cm deep.

• As you are digging the hole, put the retrieved soil into the plastic bag in other that the soil does not loose moisture. All of the soil including the soil at the bottom of the hole is poured into the bag as well.(See Fig. B below)

1. Having the valve closed, turn the gallon + cone upside down and place the cone in the centre hole of tray and open the valve so that sand flows down to the hole.(See Fig. C below)
2. After the flow of sand stops, close the valve and pick the assembly up, the sand in the cone will be poured into the tray. This sand will be left there in the field.

NOTE; The plastic bag should be kept close while transferring it to the lab to avoid moisture loss and consequently weight of the soil.

1. Measure the weight of soil (laterite).

• Measure the weight of sand in cone.
• Measure the weight of sand after pouring.

1. Measure the weight of sand before pouring.
2. Pour the soil (laterite) into the speedy moisture tester (SMT) and add SMT reagent to find the moisture content.

 

 

CALCULATIONS

The following parameters were obtained from an experiment carried out, a case study of Gilmor Engineering (Nigeria) Limited.

Location Layer Soil type Sand bottle No.   Wt. of wet soil from whole W gm Wt. of sand in cone w7 Wt. of sand before pouring w5gm Wt. of sand after pouring. W6 gm Wt. of sand in hole + cone. W5 – W6 gm Wt. of sand in hole. W8 = w5 – W6 ­­- W7gm Wet density Dw = WXS/W8 g/ cm3 Mean Moisture content % Dry density Dsg/cm3 Ds = 100 Dw 100 +m Laboratory compaction details O.M.C Compaction M.D.D % Compaction

Culvert 2nd Layer Bank filling Laterite CL 10   2711 420 3000 874 2126 1706 2.05 11.0 1.85     14.0 1.85 100%

 

 

ROCK BLASTING - PROCEDURES

ROCK BLASTING – PROCEDURES

ROCK BLASTING

Drilling and Blasting is the controlled use of explosives and other methods such as gas pressure blasting pyrotechnics, to break rock for excavation. It is practiced most often in mining, quarrying and civil engineering such as dam or road construction. The result of rock blasting is often known as a rock cut.

Drilling and Blasting currently utilizes many different varieties of explosives with different compositions and performance properties. Higher velocity explosives are used for relatively hard rock in order to shatter and break the rock, while low velocity explosives are used in soft rocks to generate more gas pressure and a greater heaving effect. For instance, an early 20th-century blasting manual compared the effects of black powder to that of a wedge, and dynamite to that of a hammer. The most commonly used explosives in mining today are ANFO based blends due to lower cost than dynamite.

The controlled use of explosives to excavate rock has been part of construction engineering for hundreds of years. In any blasting situation, the geologic structure of the rock mass will be the most important consideration. Other considerations include the degree of scarring that would be acceptable (some areas can tolerate more blasting scars than others), cost and safety (blasting cannot be performed in close proximity to populated areas).

 

 EFFECT OF GEOLOGIC PROCEDURE

The first consideration when designing a blasting operation should be the local geologic conditions. Rock competency and fracture patterns can have a significant impact on the success of a blasting operation.

DISCONTINUITY SETS.

When discussing blasting, the single most important geologic factor is fracture; the spacing and orientation of any breaks or discontinuity sets in the rock in particular. The orientation of the discontinuity sets with respect to the cut slope angle will influence any slope failures that may occur along the slope face. The modes of failure can be grouped into four primary mechanisms as shown below;

• Planar failure (a)
• Wedge failure(b)
• Circular failure (c)
• Toppling failure (d)

 

 The four primary mechanisms of slope failure(d)

 SOME MAJOR PROCEDURES IN BLASTING

1. PRESPLIT BLASTING;

DESCRIPTION

Presplit holes are blasted before production blasts. Procedure uses small diameter holes at close spacing and lightly loaded with distributed charges.

ADVANTAGES

This Protects the final cut by producing a fracture plane along the final slope face that fractures from production blast cannot pass. Can produce steeper cuts with less maintenance issues perform well in hard competent rocks.

LIMITATIONS

The small diameter borings limit the blasting depth to 15m (50 ft). Bored holes traces are present for the entire length of boring. It does not perform well in highly fractured weak rocks.

2. SMOOTH BLASTING.

DESCRIPTION

Smooth blast holes are blasted after production blast. Procedure uses small diameter holes at close spacing and lightly loaded with distributed charges.

ADVANTAGES

It produces a cosmetically appealing stable perimeter. This can be done on slopes years after initial construction. Drill hole traces are less apparent than prespliting.

LIMITATIONS

The small boring diameter limits blasting depth to 15m (50 ft). Borehole traces are present for much of apparent than prespliting the boring length.

3. CUSHION BLASTING.

PROCEDURE

Cushion blasting is done after production blast. Larger drilled holes are used with small diameter, lightly loaded distributed loads. Spaces around the explosives are filled with crushed rock to cushion the explosive force.

DESCRIPTION

Reduces the amount of radical fracturing around the borehole and also reduces borehole traces. The large diameter holes allow blasting depths up to 30m (100 ft).

SAFETY IN ENGINEERING CONSTRUCTION

SAFETY IN ENGINEERING CONSTRUCTION

Safety is the state of being “safe”, the condition of being protected from harm or other non-desirable outcomes. Safety can also refer to the control of recognized hazards in order to achieve an acceptable level of risk.

Construction is a high hazard industry that comprises a wide range of activities involving construction, alteration, and/or repair. Examples include residential construction, bridge erection, roadway paving, excavations, demolitions, and large scale painting jobs. Construction workers engage in many activities that may expose them to serious hazards, such as falling from rooftops, unguarded machinery, being struck by heavy construction equipment, electrocutions, silica dust, and asbestos.

Safety is of a paramount importance in engineering, both during its construction and when it is opened for use. To prevent and minimise and damages during construction relevant signs and warnings are used such as diversion, notice, flaggers and warning signs etc. Examples include flashlights, beacons, cones etc.

 

 Safety during construction

Construction work on the road or roadway can, in the absence of adequate planning. Organisations and implementation, lead to unsafe conditions for workers and all road users including pedestrian and cyclist. Highway construction and maintenance signs fall into the same three major categories as do other traffic signs, namely

• Regulatory signs e.g. stop sign, one way sign, yield sign etc.
• Warning signs e.g. construction approach warning signs, detour sign, road closed sign etc.
• Guide signs e.g. approaching barrier sign, barricades etc.

Safety within the work zone

• Restrict personal access points into work areas and define/designate ‘no backing zones’ and ‘pedestrian-free zones’.
• Design into the Temporary Traffic Control Plan flow paths for equipment and vehicle traffic to minimize backing manoeuvres where possible as well as buffer spaces to protect pedestrian workers from straying traffic vehicles and/or work zone equipment.
• Establish procedures for entering and exiting work zone.
• Train all employees on the Temporary Traffic Control Plan and its precautionary measures.

Safety requirements for workers

• Wear high-visibility safety apparel (vest & head gear in photos)
• Be alert for construction vehicles and equipment as well as general traffic.
• Check surroundings often for hazards.
• Know the plan for traffic flow.
• Keep a safe distance from traffic.
• Communicate with other workers, especially when there are changes in procedures, locations, or traffic flow pattern.

CONSTRUCTION EQUIPMENT

CONSTRUCTION EQUIPMENT

Equipment used in road construction depends on the type of material and the quantity involved in each activity. Some equipment can be used for in different activities, but others can be used only for specific activities.

 

RIPPER

Ripper is a claw-like device which consists of one or more shanks or teeth equipped at the rear of a bulldozer used to loosen densely compacted materials. Rippers can also be used to aerate the soil for drying or adding moisture.

 

BULLDOZERS

Bulldozers are high powered crawler, tractor with blade fixed at the front. It is used for pushing, spreading, vegetation clearing etc. A tree dozer is usually used for felling trees and uprooting stones/boulders.

 

MOTOR GRADER

Motor grader is used in the construction of base courses, grading and other activities that require the fine control over the placement of soil. The motor grader consists of a tractor or prime mover and blade mounted on a frame with a long wheel base. This equipment is versatile due to its manoeuvrability.

 

WATER TANKERS

Water tankers usually with carrying capacity of 4000-5000 litres carrying capacity with sprinklers attached at the rear to aid in uniform distribution.

ROLLERS

Rollers are equipments which are used for compaction, i.e. increasing the density of sub base, base and pavement material. There are different types of rollers available. The type being used usually depends on the type of materials been compacted. Examples are;

1. Smooth-wheel rollers are used for the compaction of sand, gravel and mixtures of sand and gravel
2. Sheep-foot rollers are used to compact fine-grained soils, as well as mixtures of sand and fine-grained soils.

• Pneumatic tyre rollers are used to compact almost any kind of soil including bituminous pavement but are not suitable for compacting aggregate.

 

PAVERS

Pavers are used to lay asphalt on roads, bridges etc. It lays the asphalt flat and provides minor compaction before it is compacted by a roller. Pavers used to lay asphalt are called asphalt pavers, while those that are used for laying concrete pavers.

 EXCAVATORS

Excavators are heavy equipment consisting of a boom, bucket and cab on a rotating platform (known as the “house’’). The house sits atop an under carriage with tracts or wheels. All movement and functions of the excavator are accomplished through the use of hydraulic fluid, be it with ram or motors.

 

TRUCKS

Trucks are vehicles used for transporting loose materials (such as sand, gravel or dirt for construction. A typical truck is equipped with hydraulically operated open-box bed hinged at the rear, the front of which can be lifted up to allow the contents to be deposited on the ground behind the truck at the site of delivery.

 ASPHALT MIXING PLANT

Asphalt mixing plant is equipment for producing good quality or hot mix for flexible pavement construction. The ingredients of the hot mix in required proportion are continuously fed to the rotating drum in drying and mixing zones and the discharge end of the drum delivers continuous output of the hot mix.

 

BITUMEN SPRAYER

Bitumen sprayer is used for track coat and between sprayer applications. The equipment is capable of applying a uniform coating of hot and emulsion bitumen on specified surface in prescribed quality.

Computers Professional

INTRODUCTION:COMPUTERS PROFESSIONAL

A computer professional may be a person working in the field of information technology. A person who has undergone training in a computer-related field from colleges, universities and computer institutes. A computer professional is a person who has an extensive knowledge in the area of computing.

The common computer professionals are as follows:
i. Programmers and Software Engineers
ii. Computer Scientists
iii. Computer Systems Analysts
iv. Computer technicians
v. Database Administrators
vi. Network Administrators
vii. System Administrators
viii. Information Technology Consultants
ix. Web Developers

i. Computer Programmer and software Engineers: A software engineer is a person who applies the principles of software engineering to the design, development, maintenance, testing, and evaluation of the software and systems that make computers or anything containing software work.

ii. Computer Scientist: A computer scientist is a scientist who has acquired knowledge of computer science, the study of the theoretical foundations of information and computation and their application. Computer scientists typically work on the theoretical side of computer systems, as opposed to the hardware side that computer engineers mainly focus on (although there is overlap). A primary goal of computer scientists is the development (and validation) of models often mathematical in nature for estimating the properties of computer-based systems (processors, programs, computers interaction with people, computers interacting with other computers, etc.) with an overarching objective of discovering designs that admit for improved performance (faster, better, cheaper, etc.).

iii. Computer Systems Analysts: Computers systems analysts study an organization’s current computers systems and procedures and design information systems solutions to help the organization operate more efficiently and effectively. They bring business and information technology (IT) together by understanding the needs and limitations of both.

iv. Computer Technician: A computer technician is a person who repairs and maintains computers and servers. The technician’s responsibilities may extend to include building or configuring new hardware, installing and updating software packages, and creating and maintaining computer networks.

v. Database administrators: Database administrators are responsible for backing up systems to prevent data loss in case of a power outage or other disaster. They also ensure the integrity of the database, guaranteeing that the data stored in it come from reliable sources.

vi. Network Administrator: Network administrators are responsible for the upkeep of computers hardware and software systems. They usually focus on the network components within their company. In some cases it is the responsibility of network administrators to design and implement new networks.

vii. Systems Administrator: A system administrator, or sysadmin, is a person who is responsible for the upkeep, configuration, and reliable operation of computer systems; especially multi-user computers, such as servers. computer systems administrators are responsible for the day-to-day operation of these networks. They organize, install, and support an organization’s computers systems, including local area networks (LANs), wide area networks (WANs), network segments, intranets, and other data communication systems.

viii. Information Technology Consultant: An information technology consultant is a third-party service provider who is qualified to advise clients on the best use of IT to meet specific business requirements. IT consultants may work with a professional IT consultancy firm or as independent contractors.

ix. Web Developer: A web developer is a programmer who specializes in, or is specifically engaged in, the development of World Wide Web applications, or distributed network applications that are run over HTTP from a web server to a web browser.

COMPUTERS PROFESSIONAL BODIES

The bodies for computer professions in Nigeria is called Computers Professionals Registration Council of Nigeria (CPN).

The Computers Professionals Registration Council of Nigeria (CPN) was established by Decree No. 49 of 1993, promulgated on June 10, and gazetted on August 9, of that year.

The Computers Professionals Registration Council of Nigeria (CPN) is a body corporate with perpetual succession and common seal, a legal entity charged with the control and supervision of the Computing Profession in the country.

In Nigeria, CPN develops standards for Information Technology practice and ensure compliance by individuals and corporate bodies that practice the computing profession or render IT services in whatever form. CPN is an abbreviation of Computer Professionals (Registration Council of Nigeria).

Its functions and responsibilities include the following:

1. To determine the standards of knowledge and skills to be attained by persons seeking to become members of the computing profession and improve those standards from time to time as circumstances may permit.

2. To secure, in accordance with the provision of the Act, the establishment and maintenance of a register of persons seeking to be registered under the Act to practice the computing profession and the publication from time to time of the list of such persons.

Consequently, the Council is responsible for the following among other things:

• Organization, Control and supervision of computing practice in Nigeria.
• Screening of individuals seeking to be registered to engage in the sale of computational machinery and techniques related thereto and the provision of professional services in computing in the country.
• Ensuring high computing professional Ethics and Standards.
• Creation and sustenance of local and international contacts for our numerous members,
• Reduced charges for some specific professional services and facilities.
• Determining academic standards in Computer Science, Computer Engineering and other related disciplines.
• Accreditation of institutions’ courses and programmes as well as evaluation of certificates in computing.
• Conducting professional examination in computing in collaboration with the Nigeria Computer Society.
• Publication of the Register of Computer Professionals and other professional works like journals, books, magazines and newsletters.

REFERENCES
1. “Computer and Information Research Scientists”. U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. March 29, 2012. Retrieved 2012-06-03.

2. Benjamin Beau Perry. “What is a computer scientist?”. The University of Newcastle.

3. “Computing Degrees & Careers » Computer Science”. Computingcareers.acm.org. Retrieved 2012-06-03.