ASSESSING THE EFFECTIVENESS OF DEVELOPMENT CONTROL MEASURES IN RIVERS STATE

ASSESSING THE EFFECTIVENESS OF DEVELOPMENT CONTROL MEASURES IN RIVERS STATE

 

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

1.1       Background to the Study

The number of people living in urban centres continues to grow at approximately twice the rate of that in the rural areas and it is expected that the global city population will increase from 2.76 billion in 1995 to 5.34 billion in the year 2025.This will lead to exerting greater pressure on the natural environment than ever before as such increasing the rate of urban sprawl (Ngetich, Opata, Mulongo, 2014). Increasingly, deterioration of the environment is becoming worrisome and as such attention is being focused on the management of the urban environment. However, only few people recognise that the management of the urban environment can only be effective with a sound development control of the structural development in urban centres (Nuhu, Yohana, 2013).

Most of the problems of the urban centres in Nigeria could probably have been prevented if there is effective development control (Sanusi, 2006). For instance, in Hong Kong, evaluating development control activity has brought about improved economy and the physical environment. It has identified major areas of non compliance and addressed them. This could not have been achieved if development control activity was not evaluated over time especially between different landuses (Cherry, 2006). This therefore makes evaluating development control in urban centres important so as to ensure that compliance with physical development regulations are adhered to. Furthermore, the environmental defenders office of South Australia (2011), claimed that the practice of assessing compliance level of development control gave the city a livable, convenient, improved economy which gave rise to aesthetic urban centres that meet the definition of town planning. This was done by curbing the challenges of implementing the provision of the planning authority’s plan for an ideal environment and checkmating the developer who wishes to undertake unguided activity that may have contravening impact on the environment. Before and after the emergence of the 1946 Town and country planning ordinance in Nigeria, development control was operational in regions. However, the neglect and non implementation of full planning proposals and development control has made areas that would have been designated as ideal neighbourhood in districts, towns and cities grow haphazardly (Obabori, Obiuwevbi,Olomu, 2007). This trend has been observed in Minna, Niger state of Nigeria. Development Control stands at the heart of urban development. It is a technical tool for ensuring that all users of urban land exercise some discipline in land development conformingto planning rules and regulations.

Analysts such as Sanusi (2006) believe that if development control is sound, it is possible to avoid part of the problems facing urban centres such as, slum, squatter settlements, polluted environment, unregulated and mixed landuses and other environmental nuisance. Physical planning therefore, entails putting in place a system of controls either to allow for those changes which are in accordance with plans and policies, or to prevent those developments that are not in the plans and policies from taking place (Falade, 2003). Keeble (1969) avers that development control involves regulation of the detailed aspects of development, of which precise guidance cannot be given by the development plan, so as to ensure convenience and safety. In the real sense, the purpose is to allow for orderly environment that will meet the requirements for ideal living. Agbola, (1985) observed that development control is a collection of interrelated para-legal and administrative techniques and instrument designed to safeguard, regulate, conserve and disburse land or part thereof in the interest of the overall community.

In Nigeria, development control took proper effect after the introduction of the Urban and Regional Planning Decree of 1992. This gave rise to the establishment of development control agencies at Federal, State and Local government levels. Also, with the establishment of development control agencies at various levels, there has been some degree of orderliness in some cities where development control is more effective (Ogundele, Odewumi &Aigbe, 2010).

Omole and Akinbamijo, (2012) asserts that development control is primarily used to achieve the objectives of implementing planning strategies, environmental safety and better health. However, effectively assessing its activities has continued to suffer major setbacks due to the challenges attributed to plan implementation. As such, a different approach of assessing development control becomes necessary. Tremendous efforts have been made in the pursuance of a more organized and orderly arrangement of land uses within Nigerian cities from the colonial era to date. In spite of such efforts, Nigerian cities still portray environmental problems arising from a gross disregard of development control. In recent times, adoption of Remote Sensing (RS) offers cost-effective solutions to city planners and meets data needs for both macro and micro level analysis of land use planning in urban environment management. Geographic Information System (GIS) is used for integration of various data sets to obtain a homogenous composite land development unit which help in identifying the problem areas and suggest conservation measures (Nuhu &Yohana, 2013).

Furthermore, Sanusi (2006) opined that Port Harcourt, the capital of River state is facing increasing growth and expansion like other Nigerian cities. This physical transformation in River state  necessitated the establishment of River State Urban Development Board (RUDB) in 1998 with a view to control physical development in the area and other major towns within the state. Since then, development control has been enforced  in the state by the Board. Although some degrees of success have been recorded, the absence of a well coordinated approach to evaluate development control activity in the metropolis has resulted in non compliance by many and also led to the contravening of physical development within the metropolis unchecked. In order to make proper evaluation of the compliance level of development control activities and make adequate recommendations, effective technique is required. Hence, the need to access the effectiveness of development control measures in rivers state.

1.2       Statement of the Problem

As rural settlements grow and become urban centres, and urban centres become large municipal areas, there is always increased competition in the demand for land. It is therefore pertinent that adequate planning and control mechanism be put in place to ensure harmonious development and functional efficiency. To achieve this fundamental activity, layouts of various land uses such as residential, commercial, industrial, open spaces and recreation, circulation and institutional uses among others are undertaken to standardise and control physical development and ensure harmonious growth (Aribigbola 2008). According to Oyesiku (1997) the forms and patterns of distribution of structures in general to promote the good health, accessibility, convenience and harmonious land use is a function of the rights and methods of dealing with land development. Effective urban land control and management particularly in areas with rapid urban sprawl is imperative to prevent urban land use problems such as slum formation, rising costs of land, accessibility to urban land for housing, incompatible use, flooding, overcrowding and congestion among others. In most cases development takes precedence over planning. This notwithstanding, the process of accretion has been so rapid in most cases that, efforts at spatial re-organization and development control are often left behind. The cumulative effect of this accretion in urban centres is seen in the haphazard distribution of land uses and structures without regard to any planning standards, the attendant problems of congestion, the inaccessibility to some areas, pollution and other forms of environmental degradation becomes inevitable (Abubakari, Romanus, 2011).

Most cities in Nigeria are currently experiencing continuous physical growth and the resultant effect is an increase in the demand of land for various purposes like; commercial, residential, industrial, public and semi public purposes. The course of becoming a developed country has created numerous problems of urban growth management in Nigeria such as imbalance in land use allocation, overcrowding, pollution and loss of natural resources (Okosun, 2010). This scenario therefore has called for the need for physical planning and effective development control mechanisms in order to ensure balance in land use distribution and also to ensure maximum degree of compliance to the provision of the master plan of the cities. Abubakari and Romanus (2011), identify development control as a tool that facilitates appropriate development, recognising its significance in building and protecting a healthy economy and a sustainable environment. It also examines the potential impact of the proposed development, protects the public interest from inappropriate development and also involves compliance of all procedures, building code and planning standards to ensure that physical development conform to the approved plans. River state, like any other Nigerian state is experiencing unprecedented growth in the cityscape in the last two decades (Sanusi, 2006). This growth has resulted to various urban challenges thus, the need for physical development control mechanism in the state. The state urban development board has carried out enforcement exercises within Port Harcourt metropolis and has recorded some success but problems like; conversion, overdevelopment, encroachment etc can still be observed in the area. There is therefore the need to assess the effectiveness of development control activities periodically in the area. Thus this study seek to access the effectiveness of development control in River state.

1.3       Aim and Objectives

The aim of this study is to assess the effectiveness of development control measures in rivers state. To achieve this aim, the specific objectives are to;

1. Assess the level of compliance to development control
2. Examine the factors influencing non compliance and enforcement of development control in Port Harcourt metropolis
3. Examine the implications of non compliance to development control using geospatial technique in the area.

1.4       Research questions

1. What is the compliance level to development control in River state?
2. What factors influence noncompliance to development Control activities in Port Harcourt Metropolis?
3. What are the implications of non compliance to development control activities?

 

1.5       Scope of the Study

The scope of this study is limited to the assessment of the effectiveness of development control in River State. The study is further limited to the Port Harcourt  the river state capital.

1.6       Justification of the Study

Urban centres have always been of great concern to policy makers and technocrats. This is because of the role they play in the economic, social and political development of the country. The problems confronting urban centers include housing, transportation, inadequacy of facilities, utilities and services, insecurity and above all physical environmental degradation. Development control measures which is aimed at regulating physical development and settlement with the intention of creating conducive and orderly development of physical structures becomes mandatory to be fully implemented in any fast growing urban centres (Ogundele, et al. 2010).

However the system of development control and its effective implementation is much influenced by various forces, which are at work. Firstly, there is the planning authority’s plan for an ideal environment. Secondly, there is the developer who wishes to undertake an unguided activity which might have impact on the environment. Tremendous effort have been made in pursuance of a more organized and orderly arrangement of uses within Nigerian cities from colonial era to date. In spite of such tremendous effort in pursuance of a more organized and orderly arrangement of uses within the city, the existing condition of our cities still portray an alarming reality of environmental problems and a gross disregard of development control. In our contemporary era, Remote Sensing (RS) offers cost-effective solutions to city planners‟ data needs for both macro and micro level analysis of the land use planning and development control leading to urban environment management. While Geographic Information System (GIS) is used for integration of various data sets to obtain a homogenous composite land development unit which help in identifying the problem areas and suggest recommendations measures to be taking (Nuhu and Yohana, 2013). In Port Harcourt, the complexity of urban development is so dramatic that it demands immediate attention in the area of physical planning of the city. The dynamic nature of urban environment necessitates unprecedented growth thus, the high demand of land for various purposes like Commercial, Residential, Public and Semi Public. These developments are monitored by the River State Urban Development Board to ensure orderliness and compliance to the Master plan, land use zoning plan and other planning schemes. However, it was observed that with the enforcement of development control by the board, compliance level to planning regulations have not been assessed in Port Harcourt which if not given due attention may leave a lot of districts to continue to grow unguided and the challenges to ensure compliance may not be overcome.

1.7       Significance of the Study

The role of development control in management of urban areas cannot be underestimated.

The crucial role of development control makes studies about it relevant to national
development. This study aims at assessing the effectiveness of development control in the
Rivers State.

The study is particularly important as contributes to existing works on

development control in Nigeria. This will contribute to knowledge by discovering new
challenges stakeholders faces in controlling and housing development in urban centers in
growing cities and also serves as a reference material for future research.

The findings of this study will help contribute to good management practice in the public

institutions charged with the responsibility of controlling housing developments in the
country. This is because the study attempts to explore the problems associated with
housing development control and recommends actions to be taken for its effectiveness.

Furthermore, the findings will create awareness of stakeholders on the current state of

housing developments and their effect on the urban environment and people. This will aid
ensure adequate measures are put in place to prevent further developments of the
situations where buildings in urban areas uncontrolled. The implementation of findings of
this research will also lead to improvement in urban housing development and
management as well as related issues in Nigeria as a whole.

The study will extend literature and broaden the frontiers of knowledge in development

control and serve as input into related works in future. The findings could contribute to
tabling issues for consideration in the study district as well as national policies on
ensuring effective developments in the urban areas and beyond.

1.8       Historical Background of the Study Area

Rivers State, also known as Rivers, is a state in the Niger Delta region of southern Nigeria (Old Eastern Region). Formed in 1967, when it was split from the former Eastern Region, Rivers State borders includes; Anambra and Imo on the north, Abia and Akwa Ibom on the east, and Bayelsa and Delta on the west. The state capital, Port Harcourt, is a metropolis that is considered to be the commercial center of the Nigerian oil industry.

With a population of 5,198,716 as of the 2006 census, Rivers State is the 6th most populous state in Nigeria. Rivers State is a diverse state that is home to many ethnic groups, the majority being Igbo or Igboid, but also including the Ogoni and Ijaw. The state is particularly noted for its linguistic diversity, with 28 indigenous languages being said to be spoken in Rivers State, the most dominant of which are the Igbo speaking groups, the Ogoni and Ijaw languages. Rivers State is the 26th largest state by area, and its geography is dominated by the numerous rivers that flow through it, including the Bonny River.

The economy of Rivers State is dominated by the state’s booming petroleum industry. Although the rise of the oil industry has led to increased revenue for the state government, mismanagement and corruption have prevented the state from rapid development and meaningfully tackling poverty. During the 2000s, Rivers State saw a rise in the number of cult killings committed within the state. In 2019, Governor Ezenwo Nyesom Wike declared Rivers State to be a Christian state because it is made up of 90% Christians and 10% orthodox with few strangers practicing Islam unconventionally.

Geography

Rivers State is a predominantly low-lying pluvial state in southern Nigeria, located in the eastern part of the Niger Delta on the oceanward extension of the Benue Trough. The inland part of the state consists of tropical rainforest, and towards the coast, the typical Niger Delta environment features many mangrove swamps. Rivers State has a total area of 11,077 km² (4,277 sq mi), making it the 26th largest state in Nigeria. Surrounding states are Imo, Abia and Anambra to the north, Akwa Ibom to the east and Bayelsa, Delta to the west. On the south, it is bounded by the Atlantic Ocean. Its topography ranges from flat plains, with a network of rivers to tributaries.

Climate

Ogoni Climate activists and others in Port Harcourt protesting environmental degradation in 2015.

Rainfall is generally seasonal, variable, as well as heavy, and occurs between the months of March and October through November. The wet season peaks in July, lasting more than 290 days. The only dry months are January and February having little to no effect.

Total annual rainfall decreases from about 4,700 mm (185 in) on the coast, to about 1,700 mm (67 in) in the extreme north. It is 4,698 mm (185 in) at Bonny along the coast and 1,862 mm (73 in) at Degema. For Port Harcourt, temperatures throughout the year are relatively constant with little variation throughout the course of the seasons. Average temperatures are typically between 25 and 28 °C (77 and 82 °F). Some parts of the state still receive up to 150 mm (6 in) of rainfall during the dry period. Relative humidity rarely dips below 60% and fluctuates between 90% and 100% for most of the year.

CONSTRUCTION OF PRIMARY DRY CELL BATTERY USING CASSAVA

CONSTRUCTION OF PRIMARY DRY CELL BATTERY USING CASSAVA

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1       background of the study

A turning point for mankind, the discovery and subsequent use of cheaply available fossil feedstock for the production of many beneficial products is mitigated by the realization that the supply of the fossil feedstock is limited, and that the use of derived products is neither environmentally, ecologically, nor economically sustainable. This has led to the recent global quest for renewable sources of energy (Li et al., 2012a). The discovery of biofuels has helped a great deal in alleviating some of the problems identified with fossil fuels such as global warming, as well as provide income and employment opportunities in rural areas. However, as identified by many concerned stakeholders, this alone is not sufficient to solve the looming energy crisis. Plans have been mostly devised to combine many alternative energy sources so as to cover for the looming crisis; however, most of these methods are not totally carbon neutral in their generation of fuel. More often than not, the criteria for a clean energy device, especially in developing countries, involves the lowest and barest energy input requirement, low set-up and maintenance costs, as well as low carbon emissions.

Microbial fuel cells (MFCs) are one of the emerging technologies that currently fit these criteria. Not entirely new, this technology has risen into the development mainstream in the last couple of decades, and although not fully commercialized due to the necessity for improvements in the delivery and manufacture of the fuel cells, it represents a viable option in augmenting the planet’s rapidly depleting energy sources.

While the ability of microorganisms, particularly bacteria, to generate electricity was first observed by Potter (2011), minimal advancements in harnessing this source occurred over the next six decades. However, in the last three decades, great strides have been taken towards the advancement of this technology (Bennetto et al., 2018). The core of this work has been channeled towards improving and modeling power outputs, and characterizing microbial genetics and electron transfer mechanisms.

Since developing countries where energy crises are particularly acute also tend to rely heavily on agricultural production, they have access to a potentially large source of organic waste matter that can serve as an microbial fuel cells substrate for the generation of electricity, thereby alleviating current energy issues. A good example of such an agricultural product, produced in high quantities in developing countries, is cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz). Typically, the waste from cassava processing includes the effluent discharge (whyme), root peelings, and the fibrous root tissue removed during sieving — all waste materials presumably high in organic load. Use of the effluent in an microbial fuel cells has been demonstrated to allow electricity generation as well as serve in waste detoxification before its discharge into the environment. The possibility for a successful breakthrough in the usage of the cassava wastes is highlighted by the fact that the countries like Nigeria with the highest production are also the countries with one of the most acute energy shortages.

The concentration of hydrocyanic acid (HCN) in cassava tuber varies in different species of cassava. There are two major species of cassava viz: sweet cassava and bitter cassava. The sweet cassava has lower level of hydrocyanic acid, while the bitter cassava has a high level of the acid, about 490mgkg-1. The tuber stores a lot of water, but this could be eliminated by dehydrating the liquid juice which is the store of the acid. Hydrocyanic acid is poisonous; hence cassava tubers are carefully and elaborately detoxified before being consumed. By its chemical nature, hydrocyanic acid has both cation⁺ )( Hand anion (CN¯). When it undergoes dissociation the products are: HCN →← H⁺ + CN¯ . With these dipolar characteristics, it could undergo electrolytic process involving the exchange of ions and flow of electrons; this can constitute an electric current. The materials utilised include crushed cassava paste/juice (electrolyte), carbon black, manganese (IV) oxide powder, zinc can, carbon rod, cassava grater, absorbent material. The apparatus needed are voltmeter, ammeter and milliammeter, circuit wires, crocodile clips, electric bulbs.

 1.2       Statement of Problem

Developing countries like Nigeria are faced with two major problems which include acute shortage of electricity and solid waste management which posed a pressing environmental challenge faced by urban and rural areas in the country, with a population exceeding 170 million people. Among several wastes generated by this huge population is agricultural waste. Improper handling of agricultural waste has raised a significant challenge in the past decades. In 2016, agriculture contributed 19.17% to the gross domestic product (GDP) of Nigeria and it also generated large amount of waste materials. Nigeria is involved in growing and producing many food crops. One of such crops is cassava, a starchy staple food crop which has the ability to resist drought and diseases.  Three main types of residues are generated during the industrial processing of cassava: peels, solids, and wastewater. These wastes are poor in protein content, but their residues are very rich in carbohydrate and are generated in large amounts during the production of ‘garri’ and cassava flour from the tubers. The cost associated with the handling and disposal of these wastes constitutes a huge financial burden to the cassava-processing industries in most rural regions of the country. As a result of this challenge, most rural cassava processors choose to dispose the cassava-processing wastes generated into the environment. These wastes have been identified to be toxic to the environment. In a bid to find a use for this abundant waste, the possibility of serving as substrate to produce electricity in a primary dry cell battery becomes very necessary, as the examination of the microbes present on cassava identified rod-shaped gram-positive and cocci-shaped gram negative bacteria as the dominant microbes growing indigenously on the cassava.

1.3       Objective of the Study

The general objective of this study is to construct primary dry cells battery using cassava.

1.4       Significance of the Study

There is great deal of ongoing research which seeks to optimize and predict Microbial fuel cells outputs, enhance associated microbes through genetic manipulation and improve fuel cell designs; however, research with respect to the use of some naturally occurring/generated agricultural products or waste is lagging behind. The heightened usability of such organic materials in microbial fuel cells would not only reduce the initial set up costs and improve microbial fuel cells viability, but also generate and heighten their attractiveness as a means to reduce greenhouse gases as well as overall environmental pollution.